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" ... as soon as one has traversed the greater part of the wild sea, one comes upon such a huge quantity of ice that nowhere in the whole world has the like been known." "This ice is of a wonderful nature. It lies at times quite still, as one would expect, with openings or large fjords in it; but sometimes its movement is so strong and rapid as to equal that of a ship running before the wind, and it drifts against the wind as often as with it." Kongespeilet - 1250 A.D. ("The Mirror of Kings") Modern societies require increasing amounts influence on the water mass and on the resulting of…mehr
" ... as soon as one has traversed the greater part of the wild sea, one comes upon such a huge quantity of ice that nowhere in the whole world has the like been known." "This ice is of a wonderful nature. It lies at times quite still, as one would expect, with openings or large fjords in it; but sometimes its movement is so strong and rapid as to equal that of a ship running before the wind, and it drifts against the wind as often as with it." Kongespeilet - 1250 A.D. ("The Mirror of Kings") Modern societies require increasing amounts influence on the water mass and on the resulting of scientific information about the environment total environment of the region; therefore, cer tain of its characteristics will necessarily be in whieh they live and work. For the seas this information must describe the air above the sea, included.
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1. Climatology. General Aspects of the Climatology. Sources of Information. Climatology in the Open Water Areas. Case Studies at the Ice Edge. Concluding Remarks. References. 2. The ICE Cover. Landfast Ice. Occurrence and Development of Grounded Landfast Ice. Fast Ice in Constricted Channels. Sikussak Fast Ice of Great Thickness. Wave Propagation Through Fast Ice. Mechanisms of Breakup. Crystal Axis Orientation in Fast Ice. The Transition Zone. The Offshore Zone in Northeast Greenland. Winter and Spring Polynyas. The Landwater Phenomenon. Inshore Motion of the Pack in Summer. The Moving Pack Ice. Ice Limits in the Greenland Sea. Ice Composition and Characteristics in the East Greenland Current. Ice Drift in the Main Pack of the East Greenland Current. The Ice Near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. The Marginal Ice Zone. Physical Processes Associated With the Ice Margin. Geometrical Properties of Ice in the Marginal Ice Zone. Millimeter Wave Remote Sensing. Problems of Modeling the Marginal Ice Zone. References. 3. The Physical Properties of the Sea Ice Cover. Ice Types. Ice Structure and Composition. Structure. Composition. Suspected Difference in the Ice of the Greenland Sea. Lack of Physical Property Data. Conclusions. References. 4. Brief Overview of the Physical Oceanography. Bathymetry and Circulation. Water Masses. Deep Water Formation. Ocean Fronts. Ocean Climate. References. 5. The Arctic Waters. Oceanographic Studies. Hydrographie Conditions in Winter. Water Masses of the Arctic Domain. Hydrography of the Arctic Domain. The Deep Waters. Discussion. References. 6. The Sound Speed Structure. Sound Speed in General. Sound Speed in the Ocean. Sound Speed in Liquids. Sound Speed in the Nordic Basin. Representative Profiles. Sound Speed Sections. Sound Speed in Ocean Fronts. Geographic and Seasonal Structure. Sound Speed in Future Applications. Appendix: Methods for Computating Sound Speed In Sea Water and Their Validities. Equation For Sound Speed as a Function of Temperature, Salinity, and Pressure. Transformation of Depth Values to Pressure Values. Simple Models for Calculating Sound Speed as a Function of Depth. Calibration of Velocimeters. Acknowledgments. References. 7. Features of Fjord and Ocean Interaction. Water Masses and Exchange Processes of Fjords. The Esturine Circulation of Fjords. Behavior of the Intermediate Water Masses. External Forcing of Water Exchanges in Fjords. Renewal of Basin Water in Fjords. References. 8. Tides. Early Tidal Research. Modern Applications of Tide Models. Modern Ocean Tide Research. Harmonic Decomposition of Tides. The Mathematical Empirical Ocean Tide Model. Major Features of M2 and K1 Ocean Tides. Acknowledgment. References. 9. Bathymetry. Data Base. Previous Work. Results. Continental Margins. Basins. Midocean Ridge. Fracture Zones. Band of Features Between Greenland and Scotland. Greenland Spitsbergen Sill. Higher Resolution Bathymetry. Summarizing Remarks. References. 10. Seafloor Topography, Sediments, and Paleoenvironments. Physiography and Morphology. Bathymétrie Data and Charts. The Midocean Ridge and Other First Order Features. Greenland. The Reykjanes Ridge. Iceland Shelf and Insular Slope. Iceland. The Iceland Faeroe Ridge. Kolbeinsey Ridge. Mohns Ridge. Knipovich Ridge. Features North of the Knipovich Ridge. Evidence for a Non Steady State Rift Valley. Basement Asymmetry. Extinct Spreading Axes. The Deep Basins. Continental Shelves and Slopes. Echo Character Provinces. Small Scale Topography. Interactions Between Bottom Currents and the Seafloor. Sediments and Paleoclimate. Surface Sediments in Basins. Iceland Faeroe Ridge. Surface Sediments Along Continental Margins. Late Quaternary Sediments and Climate. Late Quaternary Sedimentation Rates. Paleoclimate and Sedimentation During Earlier Plio Pleistocene Glaciations. Origins of Climatic Changes at Scales Between 10,000 and 1,000,000 Years. Climate and Oceanography Since the Last Ice Age. Preglacial, Post Mesozoic Sediments. Structure, Thickness, and Composition of Postopening Sediments. Physical and Chemical Properties of Subbottom Sediments. Principles of Seismic (Acoustic) Stratigraphy. Data Sources for the Deep Subbottom Geology of the Continental Margins. Tertiary Seismic Stratigraphy of the Nordic Basin Margin. Post Caledonian Paleozoic and Mesozoic Rocks as Inferred From Seismic Stratigraphy. Seismic (Acoustic) Speeds in Mesozoic and Older Rocks. Salt and Other Evaporites. Hydrocarbons. Origin and Evolution of Epicontinental Basins. Applicability of Quantitative Models for Evolution of Rifted Margins in the Nordic Seas. Overview of the Caledonian Orogeny and Earlier Events. Appendix: Plate Tectonics. References. 11. Geophysical and Geochemical Signatures and Plate Tectonics. Earthquake Seismology, Seismicity and Stress. Parameters of Interest. Overview. Seismicity and Stress Along the Midocean Ridge Including Iceland. Intraplate Seismicity in the Eurasian Plate. Intraplate Seismicity in the North American Plate. Large Earthquakes. Earthquake Recurrence Times. Man Made Seismic Disturbances. Historic Volcanism. Iceland. Jan Mayen. Recurrence Rates for Volcanic Events. Seismic Constraints on the Structure of the Crust and Uppermost Mantle. Surface Wave Studies Using Earthquakes. Historical Review of Body Wave Studies Using Artificial Sources. Jan Mayen. Other Areas in the Nordic Seas. Large Multinational Refraction Experiments. Continental/Oceanic Crustal Boundary. Experiment and Analysis Techniques and Recent Advances in Defining Oceanic Crust Structure. Magnetotellurics and Electrical Resistivity. Resistivity Below Iceland. Arctic Basin. Gravity, Gravity Anomalies, and the Geoid. Ocean Basins and Iceland. Midocean Ridge. Fracture Zones. Continental Margins. Relation of Gravity to Axial Topography and Axial Plate Thickness. Geoid Undulations. Relation of the Geoid to the Mantle's Seismic Speed Structure. Time Variations in Gravity. Magnetic Field, Magnetic Anomalies, and Seafloor Spreading. General Concepts of Magnetism and Geomagnetism. General Review of Magnetic Field Observations in the Nordic Seas. Long Wavelength Magnetic Anomalies Measured by Earth Satellites. Magnetic Anomalies of Intermediate Wavelength (10 to 100 km). Short Wavelength Magnetic Anomalies. Magnetic Properties of Leg 38 Cores. Magnetic Properties of Leg 49 Cores. Use of Magnetic Anomalies to Calculate Depths to Sources. Magnetic Smooth Zones and Other Amplitude Variations. Heat Flow. Thermal Conductivity. Measured Temperature Gradients and Conductive Heat Flow. Pálmason's Crustal Accretion Model and Its Use for Spreading Axis Heat Flow. Hydrothermal Heat Flux, Water Chemistry, and Crustal Alteration. Evidence for Temporal Fluctuations in the Temperature of Bottom Waters. General Oceanographic Significance of Geothermal Processes in the Nordic Basin. Igneous Geochemistry and Petrology. Details of Basalt Chemistry. Geochemical Transition Zones. Correlation of Geochemical Anomalies With Geophysical/Topographic Anomalies. Secular Variations in Basalt Chemistry. Secular Variations in Basalt Chemistry in Relation to Possible Secular Variations in Mantle Chemistry. Leg 38 Evidence for the Basalt Chemistry of Nordic Basin Crust. Early Tertiary Volcanism and Possible Antecedents. Pre Tertiary Magmatism in the Iceland Hotspot Area. Early Tertiary and Pre Tertiary Volcanism in North Greenland and Svalbard. Plate Motions. Plate Reconstructions Based on Magnetic Lineations. Plate Reconstruction Problems. Seafloor Spreading Rates Before 10 mybp. "Geological Present" Plate Motions (Since 10 mybp). Hotspots and Long Term Absolute Plate Motions. Direct Measurement Of Crustal Motions On Iceland. Acknowledgments. References. Addendum. Afterword. Postface. Acknowledgments. Name Index.
1. Climatology. General Aspects of the Climatology. Sources of Information. Climatology in the Open Water Areas. Case Studies at the Ice Edge. Concluding Remarks. References. 2. The ICE Cover. Landfast Ice. Occurrence and Development of Grounded Landfast Ice. Fast Ice in Constricted Channels. Sikussak Fast Ice of Great Thickness. Wave Propagation Through Fast Ice. Mechanisms of Breakup. Crystal Axis Orientation in Fast Ice. The Transition Zone. The Offshore Zone in Northeast Greenland. Winter and Spring Polynyas. The Landwater Phenomenon. Inshore Motion of the Pack in Summer. The Moving Pack Ice. Ice Limits in the Greenland Sea. Ice Composition and Characteristics in the East Greenland Current. Ice Drift in the Main Pack of the East Greenland Current. The Ice Near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. The Marginal Ice Zone. Physical Processes Associated With the Ice Margin. Geometrical Properties of Ice in the Marginal Ice Zone. Millimeter Wave Remote Sensing. Problems of Modeling the Marginal Ice Zone. References. 3. The Physical Properties of the Sea Ice Cover. Ice Types. Ice Structure and Composition. Structure. Composition. Suspected Difference in the Ice of the Greenland Sea. Lack of Physical Property Data. Conclusions. References. 4. Brief Overview of the Physical Oceanography. Bathymetry and Circulation. Water Masses. Deep Water Formation. Ocean Fronts. Ocean Climate. References. 5. The Arctic Waters. Oceanographic Studies. Hydrographie Conditions in Winter. Water Masses of the Arctic Domain. Hydrography of the Arctic Domain. The Deep Waters. Discussion. References. 6. The Sound Speed Structure. Sound Speed in General. Sound Speed in the Ocean. Sound Speed in Liquids. Sound Speed in the Nordic Basin. Representative Profiles. Sound Speed Sections. Sound Speed in Ocean Fronts. Geographic and Seasonal Structure. Sound Speed in Future Applications. Appendix: Methods for Computating Sound Speed In Sea Water and Their Validities. Equation For Sound Speed as a Function of Temperature, Salinity, and Pressure. Transformation of Depth Values to Pressure Values. Simple Models for Calculating Sound Speed as a Function of Depth. Calibration of Velocimeters. Acknowledgments. References. 7. Features of Fjord and Ocean Interaction. Water Masses and Exchange Processes of Fjords. The Esturine Circulation of Fjords. Behavior of the Intermediate Water Masses. External Forcing of Water Exchanges in Fjords. Renewal of Basin Water in Fjords. References. 8. Tides. Early Tidal Research. Modern Applications of Tide Models. Modern Ocean Tide Research. Harmonic Decomposition of Tides. The Mathematical Empirical Ocean Tide Model. Major Features of M2 and K1 Ocean Tides. Acknowledgment. References. 9. Bathymetry. Data Base. Previous Work. Results. Continental Margins. Basins. Midocean Ridge. Fracture Zones. Band of Features Between Greenland and Scotland. Greenland Spitsbergen Sill. Higher Resolution Bathymetry. Summarizing Remarks. References. 10. Seafloor Topography, Sediments, and Paleoenvironments. Physiography and Morphology. Bathymétrie Data and Charts. The Midocean Ridge and Other First Order Features. Greenland. The Reykjanes Ridge. Iceland Shelf and Insular Slope. Iceland. The Iceland Faeroe Ridge. Kolbeinsey Ridge. Mohns Ridge. Knipovich Ridge. Features North of the Knipovich Ridge. Evidence for a Non Steady State Rift Valley. Basement Asymmetry. Extinct Spreading Axes. The Deep Basins. Continental Shelves and Slopes. Echo Character Provinces. Small Scale Topography. Interactions Between Bottom Currents and the Seafloor. Sediments and Paleoclimate. Surface Sediments in Basins. Iceland Faeroe Ridge. Surface Sediments Along Continental Margins. Late Quaternary Sediments and Climate. Late Quaternary Sedimentation Rates. Paleoclimate and Sedimentation During Earlier Plio Pleistocene Glaciations. Origins of Climatic Changes at Scales Between 10,000 and 1,000,000 Years. Climate and Oceanography Since the Last Ice Age. Preglacial, Post Mesozoic Sediments. Structure, Thickness, and Composition of Postopening Sediments. Physical and Chemical Properties of Subbottom Sediments. Principles of Seismic (Acoustic) Stratigraphy. Data Sources for the Deep Subbottom Geology of the Continental Margins. Tertiary Seismic Stratigraphy of the Nordic Basin Margin. Post Caledonian Paleozoic and Mesozoic Rocks as Inferred From Seismic Stratigraphy. Seismic (Acoustic) Speeds in Mesozoic and Older Rocks. Salt and Other Evaporites. Hydrocarbons. Origin and Evolution of Epicontinental Basins. Applicability of Quantitative Models for Evolution of Rifted Margins in the Nordic Seas. Overview of the Caledonian Orogeny and Earlier Events. Appendix: Plate Tectonics. References. 11. Geophysical and Geochemical Signatures and Plate Tectonics. Earthquake Seismology, Seismicity and Stress. Parameters of Interest. Overview. Seismicity and Stress Along the Midocean Ridge Including Iceland. Intraplate Seismicity in the Eurasian Plate. Intraplate Seismicity in the North American Plate. Large Earthquakes. Earthquake Recurrence Times. Man Made Seismic Disturbances. Historic Volcanism. Iceland. Jan Mayen. Recurrence Rates for Volcanic Events. Seismic Constraints on the Structure of the Crust and Uppermost Mantle. Surface Wave Studies Using Earthquakes. Historical Review of Body Wave Studies Using Artificial Sources. Jan Mayen. Other Areas in the Nordic Seas. Large Multinational Refraction Experiments. Continental/Oceanic Crustal Boundary. Experiment and Analysis Techniques and Recent Advances in Defining Oceanic Crust Structure. Magnetotellurics and Electrical Resistivity. Resistivity Below Iceland. Arctic Basin. Gravity, Gravity Anomalies, and the Geoid. Ocean Basins and Iceland. Midocean Ridge. Fracture Zones. Continental Margins. Relation of Gravity to Axial Topography and Axial Plate Thickness. Geoid Undulations. Relation of the Geoid to the Mantle's Seismic Speed Structure. Time Variations in Gravity. Magnetic Field, Magnetic Anomalies, and Seafloor Spreading. General Concepts of Magnetism and Geomagnetism. General Review of Magnetic Field Observations in the Nordic Seas. Long Wavelength Magnetic Anomalies Measured by Earth Satellites. Magnetic Anomalies of Intermediate Wavelength (10 to 100 km). Short Wavelength Magnetic Anomalies. Magnetic Properties of Leg 38 Cores. Magnetic Properties of Leg 49 Cores. Use of Magnetic Anomalies to Calculate Depths to Sources. Magnetic Smooth Zones and Other Amplitude Variations. Heat Flow. Thermal Conductivity. Measured Temperature Gradients and Conductive Heat Flow. Pálmason's Crustal Accretion Model and Its Use for Spreading Axis Heat Flow. Hydrothermal Heat Flux, Water Chemistry, and Crustal Alteration. Evidence for Temporal Fluctuations in the Temperature of Bottom Waters. General Oceanographic Significance of Geothermal Processes in the Nordic Basin. Igneous Geochemistry and Petrology. Details of Basalt Chemistry. Geochemical Transition Zones. Correlation of Geochemical Anomalies With Geophysical/Topographic Anomalies. Secular Variations in Basalt Chemistry. Secular Variations in Basalt Chemistry in Relation to Possible Secular Variations in Mantle Chemistry. Leg 38 Evidence for the Basalt Chemistry of Nordic Basin Crust. Early Tertiary Volcanism and Possible Antecedents. Pre Tertiary Magmatism in the Iceland Hotspot Area. Early Tertiary and Pre Tertiary Volcanism in North Greenland and Svalbard. Plate Motions. Plate Reconstructions Based on Magnetic Lineations. Plate Reconstruction Problems. Seafloor Spreading Rates Before 10 mybp. "Geological Present" Plate Motions (Since 10 mybp). Hotspots and Long Term Absolute Plate Motions. Direct Measurement Of Crustal Motions On Iceland. Acknowledgments. References. Addendum. Afterword. Postface. Acknowledgments. Name Index.
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