Switching in Electrical Transmission and Distribution Systems (eBook, ePUB)
Switching in Electrical Transmission and Distribution Systems (eBook, ePUB)
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Switching in Electrical Transmission and Distribution Systems presents the issues and technological solutions associated with switching in power systems, from medium to ultra-high voltage. The book systematically discusses the electrical aspects of switching, details the way load and fault currents are interrupted, the impact of fault currents, and compares switching equipment in particular circuit-breakers. The authors also explain all examples of practical switching phenomena by examining real measurements from switching tests. Other highlights include: up to date commentary on new…mehr
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- Produktdetails
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 440
- Erscheinungstermin: 5. Januar 2015
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781118703625
- Artikelnr.: 42118131
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 440
- Erscheinungstermin: 5. Januar 2015
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781118703625
- Artikelnr.: 42118131
Organization of this Book 2 1.3 Power-System Analysis 5 1.4 Purpose of
Switching 8 1.4.1 Isolation and Earthing 8 1.4.2 Busbar-Transfer Switching
8 1.4.3 Load Switching 8 1.4.4 Fault-Current Interruption 9 1.5 The
Switching Arc 10 1.6 Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) 14 1.6.1 TRV
Description 14 1.6.2 TRV Composed of Load- and Source-Side Contributions 16
1.7 Switching Devices 19 1.8 Classification of Circuit-Breakers 22
References 27 2 Faults in Power Systems 28 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2
Asymmetrical Current 30 2.2.1 General Terms 30 2.2.2 DC Time Constant 33
2.2.3 Asymmetrical Current in Three-Phase Systems 34 2.3 Short-Circuit
Current Impact on System and Components 35 2.4 Fault Statistics 43 2.4.1
Occurrence and Nature of Short-Circuits 43 2.4.2 Magnitude of Short-Circuit
Current 45 References 46 3 Fault-Current Breaking and Making 48 3.1
Introduction 48 3.2 Fault-Current Interruption 48 3.3 Terminal Faults 49
3.3.1 Introduction 49 3.3.2 Three-Phase Current Interruption 51 3.4
Transformer-Limited Faults 58 3.4.1 Transformer Modelling for TRV
Calculation 59 3.4.2 External Capacitances 61 3.5 Reactor-Limited Faults 62
3.6 Faults on Overhead Lines 64 3.6.1 Short-Line Faults 64 3.6.2 Long-Line
Faults 81 3.7 Out-of-Phase Switching 81 3.7.1 Introduction 81 3.7.2
Switching between Generator and System 83 3.7.3 Switching between Two
Systems 85 3.8 Fault-Current Making 86 3.8.1 Impact of Making a
Short-Circuit Current on the Circuit-Breaker 86 3.8.2 Switching-Voltage
Transients at Making in Three-Phase Systems 88 References 93 4 Load
Switching 96 4.1 Normal-Load Switching 96 4.2 Capacitive-Load Switching 97
4.2.1 Introduction 97 4.2.2 Single-Phase Capacitive-Load Switching 98 4.2.3
Three-Phase Capacitive-Load Switching 104 4.2.4 Late Breakdown Phenomena
104 4.2.5 Overhead-Line Switching 114 4.2.6 Capacitor-Bank Energization 118
4.3 Inductive-Load Switching 122 4.3.1 Current Chopping 124 4.3.2
Implication of Current Chopping 125 4.3.3 Inductive-Load Switching Duties
127 References 138 5 Calculation of Switching Transients 141 5.1 Analytical
Calculation 141 5.1.1 Introduction 141 5.1.2 Switching LR Circuits 142
5.1.3 Switching RLC Circuits 147 5.2 Numerical Simulation of Transients 153
5.2.1 Historical Overview 153 5.2.2 The Electromagnetic Transients Program
154 5.2.3 Overview of Electrical Programs for Transient Simulation 159 5.3
Representation of Network Elements when Calculating Transients 160
References 162 6 Current Interruption in Gaseous Media 164 6.1 Introduction
164 6.2 Air as an Interrupting Medium 166 6.2.1 General 166 6.2.2
Fault-Current Interruption by Arc Elongation 167 6.2.3 Arc Chutes 171 6.2.4
Arcs in Open Air 174 6.2.5 Current Interruption by Compressed Air 175 6.3
Oil as an Interrupting Medium 176 6.3.1 Introduction 176 6.3.2 Current
Interruption in Bulk-Oil Circuit-Breakers 177 6.3.3 Current Interruption in
Minimum-Oil Circuit-Breakers 180 6.4 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) as an
Interrupting Medium 181 6.4.1 Introduction 181 6.4.2 Physical Properties
182 6.4.3 SF6 Decomposition Products 186 6.4.4 Environmental Effects of SF6
189 6.4.5 SF6 Substitutes 195 6.5 SF6 - N2 Mixtures 197 References 198 7
Gas Circuit-Breakers 202 7.1 Oil Circuit-Breakers 202 7.2 Air
Circuit-Breakers 205 7.3 SF6 Circuit-Breakers 207 7.3.1 Introduction 207
7.3.2 Double-Pressure SF6 Circuit-Breakers 210 7.3.3 Puffer-Type SF6
Circuit-Breakers 210 7.3.4 Self-Blast SF6 Circuit-Breakers 215 7.3.5
Double-Motion Principle 218 7.3.6 Double-Speed Principle 220 7.3.7 SF6
Circuit-Breakers with Magnetic Arc Rotation 221 References 222 8 Current
Interruption in Vacuum 223 8.1 Introduction 223 8.2 Vacuum as an
Interruption Environment 223 8.3 Vacuum Arcs 227 8.3.1 Introduction 227
8.3.2 Cathode- and Anode Sheath 229 8.3.3 The Diffuse Vacuum Arc 230 8.3.4
The Constricted Vacuum Arc 234 8.3.5 Vacuum-Arc Control by Magnetic Field
235 References 241 9 Vacuum Circuit-Breakers 243 9.1 General Features of
Vacuum Interrupters 243 9.2 Contact Material for Vacuum Switchgear 246
9.2.1 Pure Metals 247 9.2.2 Alloys 247 9.3 Reliability of Vacuum Switchgear
248 9.4 Electrical Lifetime 249 9.5 Mechanical Lifetime 249 9.6 Breaking
Capacity 251 9.7 Dielectric Withstand Capability 251 9.8 Current Conduction
252 9.9 Vacuum Quality 252 9.10 Vacuum Switchgear for HV Systems 253 9.10.1
Introduction 253 9.10.2 Development of HV Vacuum Circuit-Breakers 254
9.10.3 Actual Application of HV Vacuum Circuit-Breakers 255 9.10.4 X-ray
Emission 256 9.10.5 Comparison of HV Vacuum- and HV SF6 Circuit-Breakers
257 References 258 10 Special Switching Situations 261 10.1
Generator-Current Breaking 261 10.1.1 Introduction 261 10.1.2 Generator
Circuit-Breakers 266 10.2 Delayed Current Zero in Transmission Systems 267
10.3 Disconnector Switching 267 10.3.1 Introduction 267 10.3.2
No-Load-Current Switching 268 10.3.3 Bus-Transfer Switching 278 10.4
Earthing 279 10.4.1 Earthing Switches 279 10.4.2 High-Speed Earthing
Switches 280 10.5 Switching Related to Series Capacitor Banks 282 10.5.1
Series Capacitor-Bank Protection 282 10.5.2 By-Pass Switch 283 10.6
Switching Leading to Ferroresonance 285 10.7 Fault-Current Interruption
Near Shunt Capacitor Banks 286 10.8 Switching in Ultra-High-Voltage (UHV)
Systems 288 10.8.1 Insulation Levels 289 10.8.2 UHV System Characteristics
Related to Switching 289 10.9 High-Voltage AC Cable System Characteristics
291 10.9.1 Background 291 10.9.2 Current Situation 291 10.10 Switching in
DC Systems 295 10.10.1 Introduction 295 10.10.2 Low- and Medium Voltage DC
Interruption 295 10.10.3 High-Voltage DC Interruption 297 10.11 Distributed
Generation and Switching Transients 298 10.11.1 General Considerations 298
10.11.2 Out-of-Phase Conditions 300 10.12 Switching with Non-Mechanical
Devices 301 10.12.1 Fault-Current Limitation 301 10.12.2 Fuses 301 10.12.3
IS Limiters 303 References 304 11 Switching Overvoltages and Their
Mitigation 310 11.1 Overvoltages 310 11.2 Switching Overvoltages 312 11.3
Switching-Voltage Mitigation 313 11.3.1 Principles of Mitigation 313 11.3.2
Mitigation by Closing Resistors 314 11.3.3 Mitigation by Surge Arresters
316 11.3.4 Fast Insertion of Shunt Reactors 319 11.4 Mitigation by
Controlled Switching 320 11.4.1 Principles of Controlled Switching 320
11.4.2 Controlled Opening 321 11.4.3 Controlled Closing 323 11.4.4
Staggered Pole Closing 324 11.4.5 Applications of Controlled Switching 324
11.4.6 Comparison of Various Measures 334 11.4.7 Influence of Metal-Oxide
Surge Arresters on Circuit-Breaker TRVs 336 11.4.8 Functional Requirements
for Circuit-Breakers 337 11.4.9 Reliability Aspects 340 11.5 Practical
Values of Switching Overvoltages 341 11.5.1 Overhead Lines 341 11.5.2 Shunt
Capacitor Banks and Shunt Reactors 342 References 344 12 Reliability
Studies of Switchgear 347 12.1 CIGRE Studies on Reliability of Switchgear
347 12.1.1 Reliability 347 12.1.2 Worldwide Surveys 348 12.1.3 Population
and Failure Statistics 349 12.2 Electrical and Mechanical Endurance 354
12.2.1 Degradation Due to Arcing 354 12.2.2 Electrical-Endurance
Verification 356 12.2.3 Mechanical Endurance 358 12.3 CIGRE Studies on Life
Management of Circuit-Breakers 359 12.3.1 Maintenance 359 12.3.2 Monitoring
and Diagnostics 360 12.3.3 Life Management of Circuit-Breakers for Frequent
Load-Switching 362 12.4 Substation and System Reliability Studies 362
References 363 13 Standards, Specification, and Commissioning 365 13.1
Standards for Fault-Current Breaking Tests 365 13.1.1 Background and
History of the Standardized IEC TRV Description 366 13.1.2 IEC TRV
Description 368 13.1.3 IEC Test-Duties 370 13.1.4 IEC TRV Parameters
Selection and Application 373 13.2 IEC Standardized Tests for
Capacitive-Current Switching 373 13.3 IEC Standardized Tests for
Inductive-Load Switching 377 13.3.1 Shunt-Reactor Switching 378 13.3.2
Medium-Voltage Motor Switching 381 13.4 Specification and Commissioning 381
13.4.1 General Specifications 381 13.4.2 Circuit-Breaker Specification 383
13.4.3 Information to be given with Requests for Offers 384 13.4.4
Information to be provided with Submitted Offers 384 13.4.5 Circuit-Breaker
Selection 384 13.4.6 Circuit-Breaker Commissioning 384 References 385 14
Testing 386 14.1 Introduction 386 14.2 High-Power Tests 387 14.2.1
Introduction 387 14.2.2 Direct Tests 391 14.2.3 Synthetic Tests 395
References 411 List of Abbreviations 413 Index 417
Organization of this Book 2 1.3 Power-System Analysis 5 1.4 Purpose of
Switching 8 1.4.1 Isolation and Earthing 8 1.4.2 Busbar-Transfer Switching
8 1.4.3 Load Switching 8 1.4.4 Fault-Current Interruption 9 1.5 The
Switching Arc 10 1.6 Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) 14 1.6.1 TRV
Description 14 1.6.2 TRV Composed of Load- and Source-Side Contributions 16
1.7 Switching Devices 19 1.8 Classification of Circuit-Breakers 22
References 27 2 Faults in Power Systems 28 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2
Asymmetrical Current 30 2.2.1 General Terms 30 2.2.2 DC Time Constant 33
2.2.3 Asymmetrical Current in Three-Phase Systems 34 2.3 Short-Circuit
Current Impact on System and Components 35 2.4 Fault Statistics 43 2.4.1
Occurrence and Nature of Short-Circuits 43 2.4.2 Magnitude of Short-Circuit
Current 45 References 46 3 Fault-Current Breaking and Making 48 3.1
Introduction 48 3.2 Fault-Current Interruption 48 3.3 Terminal Faults 49
3.3.1 Introduction 49 3.3.2 Three-Phase Current Interruption 51 3.4
Transformer-Limited Faults 58 3.4.1 Transformer Modelling for TRV
Calculation 59 3.4.2 External Capacitances 61 3.5 Reactor-Limited Faults 62
3.6 Faults on Overhead Lines 64 3.6.1 Short-Line Faults 64 3.6.2 Long-Line
Faults 81 3.7 Out-of-Phase Switching 81 3.7.1 Introduction 81 3.7.2
Switching between Generator and System 83 3.7.3 Switching between Two
Systems 85 3.8 Fault-Current Making 86 3.8.1 Impact of Making a
Short-Circuit Current on the Circuit-Breaker 86 3.8.2 Switching-Voltage
Transients at Making in Three-Phase Systems 88 References 93 4 Load
Switching 96 4.1 Normal-Load Switching 96 4.2 Capacitive-Load Switching 97
4.2.1 Introduction 97 4.2.2 Single-Phase Capacitive-Load Switching 98 4.2.3
Three-Phase Capacitive-Load Switching 104 4.2.4 Late Breakdown Phenomena
104 4.2.5 Overhead-Line Switching 114 4.2.6 Capacitor-Bank Energization 118
4.3 Inductive-Load Switching 122 4.3.1 Current Chopping 124 4.3.2
Implication of Current Chopping 125 4.3.3 Inductive-Load Switching Duties
127 References 138 5 Calculation of Switching Transients 141 5.1 Analytical
Calculation 141 5.1.1 Introduction 141 5.1.2 Switching LR Circuits 142
5.1.3 Switching RLC Circuits 147 5.2 Numerical Simulation of Transients 153
5.2.1 Historical Overview 153 5.2.2 The Electromagnetic Transients Program
154 5.2.3 Overview of Electrical Programs for Transient Simulation 159 5.3
Representation of Network Elements when Calculating Transients 160
References 162 6 Current Interruption in Gaseous Media 164 6.1 Introduction
164 6.2 Air as an Interrupting Medium 166 6.2.1 General 166 6.2.2
Fault-Current Interruption by Arc Elongation 167 6.2.3 Arc Chutes 171 6.2.4
Arcs in Open Air 174 6.2.5 Current Interruption by Compressed Air 175 6.3
Oil as an Interrupting Medium 176 6.3.1 Introduction 176 6.3.2 Current
Interruption in Bulk-Oil Circuit-Breakers 177 6.3.3 Current Interruption in
Minimum-Oil Circuit-Breakers 180 6.4 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) as an
Interrupting Medium 181 6.4.1 Introduction 181 6.4.2 Physical Properties
182 6.4.3 SF6 Decomposition Products 186 6.4.4 Environmental Effects of SF6
189 6.4.5 SF6 Substitutes 195 6.5 SF6 - N2 Mixtures 197 References 198 7
Gas Circuit-Breakers 202 7.1 Oil Circuit-Breakers 202 7.2 Air
Circuit-Breakers 205 7.3 SF6 Circuit-Breakers 207 7.3.1 Introduction 207
7.3.2 Double-Pressure SF6 Circuit-Breakers 210 7.3.3 Puffer-Type SF6
Circuit-Breakers 210 7.3.4 Self-Blast SF6 Circuit-Breakers 215 7.3.5
Double-Motion Principle 218 7.3.6 Double-Speed Principle 220 7.3.7 SF6
Circuit-Breakers with Magnetic Arc Rotation 221 References 222 8 Current
Interruption in Vacuum 223 8.1 Introduction 223 8.2 Vacuum as an
Interruption Environment 223 8.3 Vacuum Arcs 227 8.3.1 Introduction 227
8.3.2 Cathode- and Anode Sheath 229 8.3.3 The Diffuse Vacuum Arc 230 8.3.4
The Constricted Vacuum Arc 234 8.3.5 Vacuum-Arc Control by Magnetic Field
235 References 241 9 Vacuum Circuit-Breakers 243 9.1 General Features of
Vacuum Interrupters 243 9.2 Contact Material for Vacuum Switchgear 246
9.2.1 Pure Metals 247 9.2.2 Alloys 247 9.3 Reliability of Vacuum Switchgear
248 9.4 Electrical Lifetime 249 9.5 Mechanical Lifetime 249 9.6 Breaking
Capacity 251 9.7 Dielectric Withstand Capability 251 9.8 Current Conduction
252 9.9 Vacuum Quality 252 9.10 Vacuum Switchgear for HV Systems 253 9.10.1
Introduction 253 9.10.2 Development of HV Vacuum Circuit-Breakers 254
9.10.3 Actual Application of HV Vacuum Circuit-Breakers 255 9.10.4 X-ray
Emission 256 9.10.5 Comparison of HV Vacuum- and HV SF6 Circuit-Breakers
257 References 258 10 Special Switching Situations 261 10.1
Generator-Current Breaking 261 10.1.1 Introduction 261 10.1.2 Generator
Circuit-Breakers 266 10.2 Delayed Current Zero in Transmission Systems 267
10.3 Disconnector Switching 267 10.3.1 Introduction 267 10.3.2
No-Load-Current Switching 268 10.3.3 Bus-Transfer Switching 278 10.4
Earthing 279 10.4.1 Earthing Switches 279 10.4.2 High-Speed Earthing
Switches 280 10.5 Switching Related to Series Capacitor Banks 282 10.5.1
Series Capacitor-Bank Protection 282 10.5.2 By-Pass Switch 283 10.6
Switching Leading to Ferroresonance 285 10.7 Fault-Current Interruption
Near Shunt Capacitor Banks 286 10.8 Switching in Ultra-High-Voltage (UHV)
Systems 288 10.8.1 Insulation Levels 289 10.8.2 UHV System Characteristics
Related to Switching 289 10.9 High-Voltage AC Cable System Characteristics
291 10.9.1 Background 291 10.9.2 Current Situation 291 10.10 Switching in
DC Systems 295 10.10.1 Introduction 295 10.10.2 Low- and Medium Voltage DC
Interruption 295 10.10.3 High-Voltage DC Interruption 297 10.11 Distributed
Generation and Switching Transients 298 10.11.1 General Considerations 298
10.11.2 Out-of-Phase Conditions 300 10.12 Switching with Non-Mechanical
Devices 301 10.12.1 Fault-Current Limitation 301 10.12.2 Fuses 301 10.12.3
IS Limiters 303 References 304 11 Switching Overvoltages and Their
Mitigation 310 11.1 Overvoltages 310 11.2 Switching Overvoltages 312 11.3
Switching-Voltage Mitigation 313 11.3.1 Principles of Mitigation 313 11.3.2
Mitigation by Closing Resistors 314 11.3.3 Mitigation by Surge Arresters
316 11.3.4 Fast Insertion of Shunt Reactors 319 11.4 Mitigation by
Controlled Switching 320 11.4.1 Principles of Controlled Switching 320
11.4.2 Controlled Opening 321 11.4.3 Controlled Closing 323 11.4.4
Staggered Pole Closing 324 11.4.5 Applications of Controlled Switching 324
11.4.6 Comparison of Various Measures 334 11.4.7 Influence of Metal-Oxide
Surge Arresters on Circuit-Breaker TRVs 336 11.4.8 Functional Requirements
for Circuit-Breakers 337 11.4.9 Reliability Aspects 340 11.5 Practical
Values of Switching Overvoltages 341 11.5.1 Overhead Lines 341 11.5.2 Shunt
Capacitor Banks and Shunt Reactors 342 References 344 12 Reliability
Studies of Switchgear 347 12.1 CIGRE Studies on Reliability of Switchgear
347 12.1.1 Reliability 347 12.1.2 Worldwide Surveys 348 12.1.3 Population
and Failure Statistics 349 12.2 Electrical and Mechanical Endurance 354
12.2.1 Degradation Due to Arcing 354 12.2.2 Electrical-Endurance
Verification 356 12.2.3 Mechanical Endurance 358 12.3 CIGRE Studies on Life
Management of Circuit-Breakers 359 12.3.1 Maintenance 359 12.3.2 Monitoring
and Diagnostics 360 12.3.3 Life Management of Circuit-Breakers for Frequent
Load-Switching 362 12.4 Substation and System Reliability Studies 362
References 363 13 Standards, Specification, and Commissioning 365 13.1
Standards for Fault-Current Breaking Tests 365 13.1.1 Background and
History of the Standardized IEC TRV Description 366 13.1.2 IEC TRV
Description 368 13.1.3 IEC Test-Duties 370 13.1.4 IEC TRV Parameters
Selection and Application 373 13.2 IEC Standardized Tests for
Capacitive-Current Switching 373 13.3 IEC Standardized Tests for
Inductive-Load Switching 377 13.3.1 Shunt-Reactor Switching 378 13.3.2
Medium-Voltage Motor Switching 381 13.4 Specification and Commissioning 381
13.4.1 General Specifications 381 13.4.2 Circuit-Breaker Specification 383
13.4.3 Information to be given with Requests for Offers 384 13.4.4
Information to be provided with Submitted Offers 384 13.4.5 Circuit-Breaker
Selection 384 13.4.6 Circuit-Breaker Commissioning 384 References 385 14
Testing 386 14.1 Introduction 386 14.2 High-Power Tests 387 14.2.1
Introduction 387 14.2.2 Direct Tests 391 14.2.3 Synthetic Tests 395
References 411 List of Abbreviations 413 Index 417