Geological Field Techniques
Ed. by Coe, Angela
Geological Field Techniques
Ed. by Coe, Angela
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An up-to-date publication on geological field techniques on the market, this title covers the broad spectrum of tasks completed during geological field work. Geological Field Techniques shows how to make geological field observations and collect primary geological data rather than teaching model-driven data collection.
The understanding of Earth processes and environments over geological time is highly dependent upon both the experience that can only be gained through doing fieldwork, and the collection of reliable data and appropriate samples in the field. This textbook explains the main…mehr
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An up-to-date publication on geological field techniques on the market, this title covers the broad spectrum of tasks completed during geological field work. Geological Field Techniques shows how to make geological field observations and collect primary geological data rather than teaching model-driven data collection.
The understanding of Earth processes and environments over geological time is highly dependent upon both the experience that can only be gained through doing fieldwork, and the collection of reliable data and appropriate samples in the field. This textbook explains the main data gathering techniques used by geologists in the field and the reasons for these, with emphasis throughout on how to make effective field observations and record these in suitable formats. Equal weight is given to assembling field observations from igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock types. There are also substantial chapters on producing a field notebook, collecting structural information, recording fossil data and constructing geological maps. The volume is in a robust and handy size, with colour coded chapters for ease of use and quick reference in the field.
Geological Field Techniques is designed for students, amateur enthusiasts and professionals who have a background in geology and wish to collect field data on rocks and geological features. Teaching aspects of this textbook include:
step-by-step guides to essential practical skills such as using a compass-clinometer, making a geological map and drawing a field sketch;
tricks of the trade, checklists, flow charts and short worked examples;
over 200 illustrations of a wide range of field notes, maps and geological features;
appendices with the commonly used rock description and classification diagrams;
a supporting website hosted by Wiley Blackwell.
The understanding of Earth processes and environments over geological time is highly dependent upon both the experience that can only be gained through doing fieldwork, and the collection of reliable data and appropriate samples in the field. This textbook explains the main data gathering techniques used by geologists in the field and the reasons for these, with emphasis throughout on how to make effective field observations and record these in suitable formats. Equal weight is given to assembling field observations from igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock types. There are also substantial chapters on producing a field notebook, collecting structural information, recording fossil data and constructing geological maps. The volume is in a robust and handy size, with colour coded chapters for ease of use and quick reference in the field.
Geological Field Techniques is designed for students, amateur enthusiasts and professionals who have a background in geology and wish to collect field data on rocks and geological features. Teaching aspects of this textbook include:
step-by-step guides to essential practical skills such as using a compass-clinometer, making a geological map and drawing a field sketch;
tricks of the trade, checklists, flow charts and short worked examples;
over 200 illustrations of a wide range of field notes, maps and geological features;
appendices with the commonly used rock description and classification diagrams;
a supporting website hosted by Wiley Blackwell.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- Artikelnr. des Verlages: 1A444330620
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 336
- Erscheinungstermin: 25. Oktober 2010
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 254mm x 203mm x 18mm
- Gewicht: 815g
- ISBN-13: 9781444330625
- ISBN-10: 1444330624
- Artikelnr.: 29580371
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- Artikelnr. des Verlages: 1A444330620
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 336
- Erscheinungstermin: 25. Oktober 2010
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 254mm x 203mm x 18mm
- Gewicht: 815g
- ISBN-13: 9781444330625
- ISBN-10: 1444330624
- Artikelnr.: 29580371
DR ANGELA L. COE specializes in sedimentology and stratigraphy and has over 20 years of experience of collecting geological field data in Europe, Asia, North and South America. Over this time, she has also designed and taught field geology courses for several UK universities and has led many field trips for international conferences and petroleum companies. DR TOM W. ARGLES is a geologist who has conducted structural and metamorphic fieldwork in several mountain belts (Alps, Himalaya, Betic Cordillera, Caledonides, Basin and Range) for 20 years. He has set up and taught field courses in a range of locations across the UK and Europe. DR DAVID A. ROTHERY is a volcanologist and planetary scientist. He has taught geology in the field for 30 years and has research experience of igneous rocks (including active volcanoes) in the Oman, Cyprus, Italy, the Andes, central America, NW USA, Hawaii and Western Australia. PROFESSOR ROBERT A. SPICER is a palaeobotanist and sedimentologist with over 30 years field experience working in remote regions of Northern Alaska and northeastern Russia, China and Tibet, India, Australia, New Zealand, and Mexico.
Preface x Acknowledgements xi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 A selection of general
books and reference material on geology 2 1.2 Books on geological fi eld
techniques 3 2 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 The hand
lens and binoculars 5 2.3 The compass-clinometer 6 2.3.1 Orientation of a
dipping plane 11 2.3.2 Orientation of a linear feature 16 2.3.3
Triangulation: Determining location using a compass 20 2.4 Global
positioning systems and altimeters 25 2.5 Measuring distance and thickness
26 2.5.1 Standard thickness and distance measurements 26 2.5.2 Use of the
Jacob staff to measure the thickness of inclined strata 27 2.6 Classifi
cation and colour charts 28 2.7 Hammer, chisels and other hardware 31 2.8
The hardcopy fi eld notebook 33 2.9 The laptop, netbook or PDA as a
notebook 34 2.10 Writing equipment, maps and relevant literature 35 2.10.1
Writing equipment 35 2.10.2 Maps and relevant literature 35 2.11 Comfort,
fi eld safety and fi eld safety equipment 36 2.11.1 Clothes,
backpack/rucksack and personal provisions 36 2.11.2 Field safety 36 2.11.3
Field safety equipment 39 2.12 Conservation, respect and obtaining
permission 40 2.13 Further reading 41 3 INTRODUCTION TO FIELD OBSERVATIONS
AT DIFFERENT SCALES 42 3.1 Introduction: What, where and how? 42 3.1.1
Defining the fi eldwork objectives 42 3.1.2 Deciding where to do the fi
eldwork 43 3.1.3 Locating your position 45 3.2 Scale of observation, where
to start and basic measurements 45 3.2.1 Regional context 45 3.2.2 Whole
exposure 46 3.2.3 Hand specimens 49 3.3 Overview of possible data formats
51 4 THE FIELD NOTEBOOK 53 4.1 Introduction: The purpose of fi eld notes 53
4.2 Field notebook layout 54 4.2.1 Preliminary pages 54 4.2.2 Daily entries
54 4.2.3 General tips 56 4.3 Field sketches: A picture is worth a thousand
words 57 4.3.1 General principles: Aims, space and tools 59 4.3.2 Sketches
of exposures 63 4.3.3 Sketching metre- and centimetre-scale features 67
4.3.4 Sketch maps 68 4.4 Written notes: Recording data, ideas and
interpretation 72 4.4.1 Notes recording data and observations 72 4.4.2
Notes recording interpretation, discussion and ideas 72 4.5 Correlation
with other data sets and interpretations 77 5 RECORDING PALAEONTOLOGICAL
INFORMATION 79 5.1 Introduction: Fossils are smart particles 79 5.1.1 Why
are fossils important? 79 5.1.2 Collecting fossil data 80 5.2 Fossil types
and preservation 82 5.2.1 Body fossil classifi cation 82 5.2.2 Body fossil
preservation 82 5.2.3 Trace fossils 85 5.2.4 Molecular fossils 87 5.3
Fossil distribution and where to fi nd them 87 5.3.1 Transported or life
position? 88 5.4 Sampling strategies 90 5.4.1 Sampling for biostratigraphic
or evolutionary studies 90 5.4.2 Sampling of bedding surfaces and
palaeoecology 92 5.5 Estimating abundance 95 5.5.1 Presence/absence and
qualitative abundance estimates 96 5.5.2 Quantitative measures of abundance
96 5.5.3 How many samples are required? 99 5.6 Summary 100 5.7 Further
reading 101 6 RECORDING FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND CONSTRUCTING
GRAPHIC LOGS 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Description, recognition and
recording of sedimentary deposits and sedimentary structures 104 6.2.1
Recording sedimentary lithology 104 6.2.2 Recording sedimentary structures
109 6.3 Graphic logs 117 6.3.1 Conventions for graphic logs 119 6.3.2
Constructing a graphic log 121 6.4 Rocks in space: Reconstructing
sedimentary environments and their diagnostic features 127 6.5 Using
sedimentary rocks to interpret climate change and sea-level change 133
6.5.1 Climate change 134 6.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy and relative sea-level
change 134 6.6 Further reading 137 7 RECORDING FEATURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
139 7.1 Equipment, basic tips and safety 139 7.2 Field relationships of
igneous rocks 140 7.2.1 Relationships with surrounding rocks 140 7.2.2
Internal architecture: Joints and veins 144 7.2.3 Internal architecture:
Other exposure-scale fabrics 146 7.3 Mineralogy and small-scale textures of
igneous rocks 154 7.3.1 Petrologic type 155 7.3.2 Mineral texture and
fabric 155 7.4 Recent and active volcanoes 159 7.4.1 Equipment and safety
159 7.4.2 Access 160 7.4.3 Observations 160 7.5 Further reading 161 8
RECORDING STRUCTURAL INFORMATION 163 8.1 Equipment and measurement 164
8.1.1 Structural measurements and notations 164 8.2 Brittle structures:
Faults, joints and veins 165 8.2.1 Planar brittle features - orientation
165 8.2.2 Determining past motion on brittle structures 170 8.3 Ductile
structures: Shear zones, foliations and folds 176 8.3.1 Orientation of
ductile planar features 176 8.3.2 Direction of shear/stretching: Stretching
lineations 180 8.3.3 Sense of shear: Kinematic indicators 182 8.3.4
Magnitude of shear strain 185 8.3.5 Fold analysis 185 8.4 Further reading
191 9 RECORDING FEATURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 192 9.1 Basic skills and
equipment for metamorphic fi eldwork 192 9.1.1 Field relations and context
192 9.2 Textures 194 9.2.1 Banding 194 9.2.2 Grain textures 196 9.2.3
Reaction textures 197 9.3 Mineralogy 198 9.3.1 Identifying common
metamorphic minerals 198 9.3.2 Using mineral assemblages 198 9.3.3 Classifi
cation of metamorphic rocks 200 9.4 Unravelling metamorphism and
deformation 201 9.4.1 Pre-kinematic features 202 9.4.2 Syn-kinematic
features 202 9.4.3 Post-kinematic features 203 9.5 Further reading 205 10
MAKING A GEOLOGICAL MAP 206 10.1 Principles and aims 206 10.2 Preparation
and materials 207 10.2.1 Base maps and other aids 207 10.2.2 Equipment for
mapping 212 10.3 Location, location, location 214 10.3.1 Equipment 214
10.3.2 Using base maps 214 10.4 Making a fi eld map 216 10.4.1 Information
to record on fi eld maps 216 10.4.2 The evolving map 218 10.4.3 Sketch
cross-sections 221 10.5 Mapping techniques 222 10.5.1 Traverse mapping 223
10.5.2 Contact mapping 225 10.5.3 Exposure mapping 226 10.5.4 Using other
evidence 228 10.6 The geological map 233 10.6.1 Inking in the fi eld map
233 10.6.2 Cross-sections 235 10.6.3 Fair copy maps 235 10.6.4 Digital maps
and GIS 239 10.7 Further reading 240 11 RECORDING NUMERICAL DATA AND USE OF
INSTRUMENTS IN THE FIELD 241 11.1 Data collection 241 11.1.1 Instrument
calibration and base stations 244 11.1.2 Survey grids 244 11.2 Transport
and protection of the instruments 245 11.3 Correlation with other data sets
245 11.4 Further reading 246 12 PHOTOGRAPHY 247 13 SAMPLING 250 13.1
Selecting and labelling samples 250 13.1.1 Samples for thin-sections 251
13.1.2 Orientated samples 251 13.1.3 Samples for geochemical analysis 253
13.1.4 Samples for mineral extraction 253 13.1.5 Samples for fossils 253
13.1.6 Sampling for regional studies 254 13.1.7 High-resolution sample sets
254 13.1.8 Labelling samples and their packaging 255 13.2 Practical advice
256 13.2.1 Packing and marking materials 256 13.2.2 Extraction of samples
257 14 CONCLUDING REMARKS 259 14.1 Further reading on scientifi c report
writing 260 REFERENCES 261 APPENDIX A1: GENERAL 263 APPENDIX A5: FOSSILS
265 APPENDIX A6: SEDIMENTARY 273 APPENDIX A7: IGNEOUS 293 APPENDIX A8:
STRUCTURAL 296 APPENDIX A9: METAMORPHIC 302 APPENDIX A10: MAPPING 306 Index
310
books and reference material on geology 2 1.2 Books on geological fi eld
techniques 3 2 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 The hand
lens and binoculars 5 2.3 The compass-clinometer 6 2.3.1 Orientation of a
dipping plane 11 2.3.2 Orientation of a linear feature 16 2.3.3
Triangulation: Determining location using a compass 20 2.4 Global
positioning systems and altimeters 25 2.5 Measuring distance and thickness
26 2.5.1 Standard thickness and distance measurements 26 2.5.2 Use of the
Jacob staff to measure the thickness of inclined strata 27 2.6 Classifi
cation and colour charts 28 2.7 Hammer, chisels and other hardware 31 2.8
The hardcopy fi eld notebook 33 2.9 The laptop, netbook or PDA as a
notebook 34 2.10 Writing equipment, maps and relevant literature 35 2.10.1
Writing equipment 35 2.10.2 Maps and relevant literature 35 2.11 Comfort,
fi eld safety and fi eld safety equipment 36 2.11.1 Clothes,
backpack/rucksack and personal provisions 36 2.11.2 Field safety 36 2.11.3
Field safety equipment 39 2.12 Conservation, respect and obtaining
permission 40 2.13 Further reading 41 3 INTRODUCTION TO FIELD OBSERVATIONS
AT DIFFERENT SCALES 42 3.1 Introduction: What, where and how? 42 3.1.1
Defining the fi eldwork objectives 42 3.1.2 Deciding where to do the fi
eldwork 43 3.1.3 Locating your position 45 3.2 Scale of observation, where
to start and basic measurements 45 3.2.1 Regional context 45 3.2.2 Whole
exposure 46 3.2.3 Hand specimens 49 3.3 Overview of possible data formats
51 4 THE FIELD NOTEBOOK 53 4.1 Introduction: The purpose of fi eld notes 53
4.2 Field notebook layout 54 4.2.1 Preliminary pages 54 4.2.2 Daily entries
54 4.2.3 General tips 56 4.3 Field sketches: A picture is worth a thousand
words 57 4.3.1 General principles: Aims, space and tools 59 4.3.2 Sketches
of exposures 63 4.3.3 Sketching metre- and centimetre-scale features 67
4.3.4 Sketch maps 68 4.4 Written notes: Recording data, ideas and
interpretation 72 4.4.1 Notes recording data and observations 72 4.4.2
Notes recording interpretation, discussion and ideas 72 4.5 Correlation
with other data sets and interpretations 77 5 RECORDING PALAEONTOLOGICAL
INFORMATION 79 5.1 Introduction: Fossils are smart particles 79 5.1.1 Why
are fossils important? 79 5.1.2 Collecting fossil data 80 5.2 Fossil types
and preservation 82 5.2.1 Body fossil classifi cation 82 5.2.2 Body fossil
preservation 82 5.2.3 Trace fossils 85 5.2.4 Molecular fossils 87 5.3
Fossil distribution and where to fi nd them 87 5.3.1 Transported or life
position? 88 5.4 Sampling strategies 90 5.4.1 Sampling for biostratigraphic
or evolutionary studies 90 5.4.2 Sampling of bedding surfaces and
palaeoecology 92 5.5 Estimating abundance 95 5.5.1 Presence/absence and
qualitative abundance estimates 96 5.5.2 Quantitative measures of abundance
96 5.5.3 How many samples are required? 99 5.6 Summary 100 5.7 Further
reading 101 6 RECORDING FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND CONSTRUCTING
GRAPHIC LOGS 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Description, recognition and
recording of sedimentary deposits and sedimentary structures 104 6.2.1
Recording sedimentary lithology 104 6.2.2 Recording sedimentary structures
109 6.3 Graphic logs 117 6.3.1 Conventions for graphic logs 119 6.3.2
Constructing a graphic log 121 6.4 Rocks in space: Reconstructing
sedimentary environments and their diagnostic features 127 6.5 Using
sedimentary rocks to interpret climate change and sea-level change 133
6.5.1 Climate change 134 6.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy and relative sea-level
change 134 6.6 Further reading 137 7 RECORDING FEATURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
139 7.1 Equipment, basic tips and safety 139 7.2 Field relationships of
igneous rocks 140 7.2.1 Relationships with surrounding rocks 140 7.2.2
Internal architecture: Joints and veins 144 7.2.3 Internal architecture:
Other exposure-scale fabrics 146 7.3 Mineralogy and small-scale textures of
igneous rocks 154 7.3.1 Petrologic type 155 7.3.2 Mineral texture and
fabric 155 7.4 Recent and active volcanoes 159 7.4.1 Equipment and safety
159 7.4.2 Access 160 7.4.3 Observations 160 7.5 Further reading 161 8
RECORDING STRUCTURAL INFORMATION 163 8.1 Equipment and measurement 164
8.1.1 Structural measurements and notations 164 8.2 Brittle structures:
Faults, joints and veins 165 8.2.1 Planar brittle features - orientation
165 8.2.2 Determining past motion on brittle structures 170 8.3 Ductile
structures: Shear zones, foliations and folds 176 8.3.1 Orientation of
ductile planar features 176 8.3.2 Direction of shear/stretching: Stretching
lineations 180 8.3.3 Sense of shear: Kinematic indicators 182 8.3.4
Magnitude of shear strain 185 8.3.5 Fold analysis 185 8.4 Further reading
191 9 RECORDING FEATURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 192 9.1 Basic skills and
equipment for metamorphic fi eldwork 192 9.1.1 Field relations and context
192 9.2 Textures 194 9.2.1 Banding 194 9.2.2 Grain textures 196 9.2.3
Reaction textures 197 9.3 Mineralogy 198 9.3.1 Identifying common
metamorphic minerals 198 9.3.2 Using mineral assemblages 198 9.3.3 Classifi
cation of metamorphic rocks 200 9.4 Unravelling metamorphism and
deformation 201 9.4.1 Pre-kinematic features 202 9.4.2 Syn-kinematic
features 202 9.4.3 Post-kinematic features 203 9.5 Further reading 205 10
MAKING A GEOLOGICAL MAP 206 10.1 Principles and aims 206 10.2 Preparation
and materials 207 10.2.1 Base maps and other aids 207 10.2.2 Equipment for
mapping 212 10.3 Location, location, location 214 10.3.1 Equipment 214
10.3.2 Using base maps 214 10.4 Making a fi eld map 216 10.4.1 Information
to record on fi eld maps 216 10.4.2 The evolving map 218 10.4.3 Sketch
cross-sections 221 10.5 Mapping techniques 222 10.5.1 Traverse mapping 223
10.5.2 Contact mapping 225 10.5.3 Exposure mapping 226 10.5.4 Using other
evidence 228 10.6 The geological map 233 10.6.1 Inking in the fi eld map
233 10.6.2 Cross-sections 235 10.6.3 Fair copy maps 235 10.6.4 Digital maps
and GIS 239 10.7 Further reading 240 11 RECORDING NUMERICAL DATA AND USE OF
INSTRUMENTS IN THE FIELD 241 11.1 Data collection 241 11.1.1 Instrument
calibration and base stations 244 11.1.2 Survey grids 244 11.2 Transport
and protection of the instruments 245 11.3 Correlation with other data sets
245 11.4 Further reading 246 12 PHOTOGRAPHY 247 13 SAMPLING 250 13.1
Selecting and labelling samples 250 13.1.1 Samples for thin-sections 251
13.1.2 Orientated samples 251 13.1.3 Samples for geochemical analysis 253
13.1.4 Samples for mineral extraction 253 13.1.5 Samples for fossils 253
13.1.6 Sampling for regional studies 254 13.1.7 High-resolution sample sets
254 13.1.8 Labelling samples and their packaging 255 13.2 Practical advice
256 13.2.1 Packing and marking materials 256 13.2.2 Extraction of samples
257 14 CONCLUDING REMARKS 259 14.1 Further reading on scientifi c report
writing 260 REFERENCES 261 APPENDIX A1: GENERAL 263 APPENDIX A5: FOSSILS
265 APPENDIX A6: SEDIMENTARY 273 APPENDIX A7: IGNEOUS 293 APPENDIX A8:
STRUCTURAL 296 APPENDIX A9: METAMORPHIC 302 APPENDIX A10: MAPPING 306 Index
310
Preface x Acknowledgements xi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 A selection of general
books and reference material on geology 2 1.2 Books on geological fi eld
techniques 3 2 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 The hand
lens and binoculars 5 2.3 The compass-clinometer 6 2.3.1 Orientation of a
dipping plane 11 2.3.2 Orientation of a linear feature 16 2.3.3
Triangulation: Determining location using a compass 20 2.4 Global
positioning systems and altimeters 25 2.5 Measuring distance and thickness
26 2.5.1 Standard thickness and distance measurements 26 2.5.2 Use of the
Jacob staff to measure the thickness of inclined strata 27 2.6 Classifi
cation and colour charts 28 2.7 Hammer, chisels and other hardware 31 2.8
The hardcopy fi eld notebook 33 2.9 The laptop, netbook or PDA as a
notebook 34 2.10 Writing equipment, maps and relevant literature 35 2.10.1
Writing equipment 35 2.10.2 Maps and relevant literature 35 2.11 Comfort,
fi eld safety and fi eld safety equipment 36 2.11.1 Clothes,
backpack/rucksack and personal provisions 36 2.11.2 Field safety 36 2.11.3
Field safety equipment 39 2.12 Conservation, respect and obtaining
permission 40 2.13 Further reading 41 3 INTRODUCTION TO FIELD OBSERVATIONS
AT DIFFERENT SCALES 42 3.1 Introduction: What, where and how? 42 3.1.1
Defining the fi eldwork objectives 42 3.1.2 Deciding where to do the fi
eldwork 43 3.1.3 Locating your position 45 3.2 Scale of observation, where
to start and basic measurements 45 3.2.1 Regional context 45 3.2.2 Whole
exposure 46 3.2.3 Hand specimens 49 3.3 Overview of possible data formats
51 4 THE FIELD NOTEBOOK 53 4.1 Introduction: The purpose of fi eld notes 53
4.2 Field notebook layout 54 4.2.1 Preliminary pages 54 4.2.2 Daily entries
54 4.2.3 General tips 56 4.3 Field sketches: A picture is worth a thousand
words 57 4.3.1 General principles: Aims, space and tools 59 4.3.2 Sketches
of exposures 63 4.3.3 Sketching metre- and centimetre-scale features 67
4.3.4 Sketch maps 68 4.4 Written notes: Recording data, ideas and
interpretation 72 4.4.1 Notes recording data and observations 72 4.4.2
Notes recording interpretation, discussion and ideas 72 4.5 Correlation
with other data sets and interpretations 77 5 RECORDING PALAEONTOLOGICAL
INFORMATION 79 5.1 Introduction: Fossils are smart particles 79 5.1.1 Why
are fossils important? 79 5.1.2 Collecting fossil data 80 5.2 Fossil types
and preservation 82 5.2.1 Body fossil classifi cation 82 5.2.2 Body fossil
preservation 82 5.2.3 Trace fossils 85 5.2.4 Molecular fossils 87 5.3
Fossil distribution and where to fi nd them 87 5.3.1 Transported or life
position? 88 5.4 Sampling strategies 90 5.4.1 Sampling for biostratigraphic
or evolutionary studies 90 5.4.2 Sampling of bedding surfaces and
palaeoecology 92 5.5 Estimating abundance 95 5.5.1 Presence/absence and
qualitative abundance estimates 96 5.5.2 Quantitative measures of abundance
96 5.5.3 How many samples are required? 99 5.6 Summary 100 5.7 Further
reading 101 6 RECORDING FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND CONSTRUCTING
GRAPHIC LOGS 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Description, recognition and
recording of sedimentary deposits and sedimentary structures 104 6.2.1
Recording sedimentary lithology 104 6.2.2 Recording sedimentary structures
109 6.3 Graphic logs 117 6.3.1 Conventions for graphic logs 119 6.3.2
Constructing a graphic log 121 6.4 Rocks in space: Reconstructing
sedimentary environments and their diagnostic features 127 6.5 Using
sedimentary rocks to interpret climate change and sea-level change 133
6.5.1 Climate change 134 6.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy and relative sea-level
change 134 6.6 Further reading 137 7 RECORDING FEATURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
139 7.1 Equipment, basic tips and safety 139 7.2 Field relationships of
igneous rocks 140 7.2.1 Relationships with surrounding rocks 140 7.2.2
Internal architecture: Joints and veins 144 7.2.3 Internal architecture:
Other exposure-scale fabrics 146 7.3 Mineralogy and small-scale textures of
igneous rocks 154 7.3.1 Petrologic type 155 7.3.2 Mineral texture and
fabric 155 7.4 Recent and active volcanoes 159 7.4.1 Equipment and safety
159 7.4.2 Access 160 7.4.3 Observations 160 7.5 Further reading 161 8
RECORDING STRUCTURAL INFORMATION 163 8.1 Equipment and measurement 164
8.1.1 Structural measurements and notations 164 8.2 Brittle structures:
Faults, joints and veins 165 8.2.1 Planar brittle features - orientation
165 8.2.2 Determining past motion on brittle structures 170 8.3 Ductile
structures: Shear zones, foliations and folds 176 8.3.1 Orientation of
ductile planar features 176 8.3.2 Direction of shear/stretching: Stretching
lineations 180 8.3.3 Sense of shear: Kinematic indicators 182 8.3.4
Magnitude of shear strain 185 8.3.5 Fold analysis 185 8.4 Further reading
191 9 RECORDING FEATURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 192 9.1 Basic skills and
equipment for metamorphic fi eldwork 192 9.1.1 Field relations and context
192 9.2 Textures 194 9.2.1 Banding 194 9.2.2 Grain textures 196 9.2.3
Reaction textures 197 9.3 Mineralogy 198 9.3.1 Identifying common
metamorphic minerals 198 9.3.2 Using mineral assemblages 198 9.3.3 Classifi
cation of metamorphic rocks 200 9.4 Unravelling metamorphism and
deformation 201 9.4.1 Pre-kinematic features 202 9.4.2 Syn-kinematic
features 202 9.4.3 Post-kinematic features 203 9.5 Further reading 205 10
MAKING A GEOLOGICAL MAP 206 10.1 Principles and aims 206 10.2 Preparation
and materials 207 10.2.1 Base maps and other aids 207 10.2.2 Equipment for
mapping 212 10.3 Location, location, location 214 10.3.1 Equipment 214
10.3.2 Using base maps 214 10.4 Making a fi eld map 216 10.4.1 Information
to record on fi eld maps 216 10.4.2 The evolving map 218 10.4.3 Sketch
cross-sections 221 10.5 Mapping techniques 222 10.5.1 Traverse mapping 223
10.5.2 Contact mapping 225 10.5.3 Exposure mapping 226 10.5.4 Using other
evidence 228 10.6 The geological map 233 10.6.1 Inking in the fi eld map
233 10.6.2 Cross-sections 235 10.6.3 Fair copy maps 235 10.6.4 Digital maps
and GIS 239 10.7 Further reading 240 11 RECORDING NUMERICAL DATA AND USE OF
INSTRUMENTS IN THE FIELD 241 11.1 Data collection 241 11.1.1 Instrument
calibration and base stations 244 11.1.2 Survey grids 244 11.2 Transport
and protection of the instruments 245 11.3 Correlation with other data sets
245 11.4 Further reading 246 12 PHOTOGRAPHY 247 13 SAMPLING 250 13.1
Selecting and labelling samples 250 13.1.1 Samples for thin-sections 251
13.1.2 Orientated samples 251 13.1.3 Samples for geochemical analysis 253
13.1.4 Samples for mineral extraction 253 13.1.5 Samples for fossils 253
13.1.6 Sampling for regional studies 254 13.1.7 High-resolution sample sets
254 13.1.8 Labelling samples and their packaging 255 13.2 Practical advice
256 13.2.1 Packing and marking materials 256 13.2.2 Extraction of samples
257 14 CONCLUDING REMARKS 259 14.1 Further reading on scientifi c report
writing 260 REFERENCES 261 APPENDIX A1: GENERAL 263 APPENDIX A5: FOSSILS
265 APPENDIX A6: SEDIMENTARY 273 APPENDIX A7: IGNEOUS 293 APPENDIX A8:
STRUCTURAL 296 APPENDIX A9: METAMORPHIC 302 APPENDIX A10: MAPPING 306 Index
310
books and reference material on geology 2 1.2 Books on geological fi eld
techniques 3 2 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 The hand
lens and binoculars 5 2.3 The compass-clinometer 6 2.3.1 Orientation of a
dipping plane 11 2.3.2 Orientation of a linear feature 16 2.3.3
Triangulation: Determining location using a compass 20 2.4 Global
positioning systems and altimeters 25 2.5 Measuring distance and thickness
26 2.5.1 Standard thickness and distance measurements 26 2.5.2 Use of the
Jacob staff to measure the thickness of inclined strata 27 2.6 Classifi
cation and colour charts 28 2.7 Hammer, chisels and other hardware 31 2.8
The hardcopy fi eld notebook 33 2.9 The laptop, netbook or PDA as a
notebook 34 2.10 Writing equipment, maps and relevant literature 35 2.10.1
Writing equipment 35 2.10.2 Maps and relevant literature 35 2.11 Comfort,
fi eld safety and fi eld safety equipment 36 2.11.1 Clothes,
backpack/rucksack and personal provisions 36 2.11.2 Field safety 36 2.11.3
Field safety equipment 39 2.12 Conservation, respect and obtaining
permission 40 2.13 Further reading 41 3 INTRODUCTION TO FIELD OBSERVATIONS
AT DIFFERENT SCALES 42 3.1 Introduction: What, where and how? 42 3.1.1
Defining the fi eldwork objectives 42 3.1.2 Deciding where to do the fi
eldwork 43 3.1.3 Locating your position 45 3.2 Scale of observation, where
to start and basic measurements 45 3.2.1 Regional context 45 3.2.2 Whole
exposure 46 3.2.3 Hand specimens 49 3.3 Overview of possible data formats
51 4 THE FIELD NOTEBOOK 53 4.1 Introduction: The purpose of fi eld notes 53
4.2 Field notebook layout 54 4.2.1 Preliminary pages 54 4.2.2 Daily entries
54 4.2.3 General tips 56 4.3 Field sketches: A picture is worth a thousand
words 57 4.3.1 General principles: Aims, space and tools 59 4.3.2 Sketches
of exposures 63 4.3.3 Sketching metre- and centimetre-scale features 67
4.3.4 Sketch maps 68 4.4 Written notes: Recording data, ideas and
interpretation 72 4.4.1 Notes recording data and observations 72 4.4.2
Notes recording interpretation, discussion and ideas 72 4.5 Correlation
with other data sets and interpretations 77 5 RECORDING PALAEONTOLOGICAL
INFORMATION 79 5.1 Introduction: Fossils are smart particles 79 5.1.1 Why
are fossils important? 79 5.1.2 Collecting fossil data 80 5.2 Fossil types
and preservation 82 5.2.1 Body fossil classifi cation 82 5.2.2 Body fossil
preservation 82 5.2.3 Trace fossils 85 5.2.4 Molecular fossils 87 5.3
Fossil distribution and where to fi nd them 87 5.3.1 Transported or life
position? 88 5.4 Sampling strategies 90 5.4.1 Sampling for biostratigraphic
or evolutionary studies 90 5.4.2 Sampling of bedding surfaces and
palaeoecology 92 5.5 Estimating abundance 95 5.5.1 Presence/absence and
qualitative abundance estimates 96 5.5.2 Quantitative measures of abundance
96 5.5.3 How many samples are required? 99 5.6 Summary 100 5.7 Further
reading 101 6 RECORDING FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND CONSTRUCTING
GRAPHIC LOGS 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Description, recognition and
recording of sedimentary deposits and sedimentary structures 104 6.2.1
Recording sedimentary lithology 104 6.2.2 Recording sedimentary structures
109 6.3 Graphic logs 117 6.3.1 Conventions for graphic logs 119 6.3.2
Constructing a graphic log 121 6.4 Rocks in space: Reconstructing
sedimentary environments and their diagnostic features 127 6.5 Using
sedimentary rocks to interpret climate change and sea-level change 133
6.5.1 Climate change 134 6.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy and relative sea-level
change 134 6.6 Further reading 137 7 RECORDING FEATURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
139 7.1 Equipment, basic tips and safety 139 7.2 Field relationships of
igneous rocks 140 7.2.1 Relationships with surrounding rocks 140 7.2.2
Internal architecture: Joints and veins 144 7.2.3 Internal architecture:
Other exposure-scale fabrics 146 7.3 Mineralogy and small-scale textures of
igneous rocks 154 7.3.1 Petrologic type 155 7.3.2 Mineral texture and
fabric 155 7.4 Recent and active volcanoes 159 7.4.1 Equipment and safety
159 7.4.2 Access 160 7.4.3 Observations 160 7.5 Further reading 161 8
RECORDING STRUCTURAL INFORMATION 163 8.1 Equipment and measurement 164
8.1.1 Structural measurements and notations 164 8.2 Brittle structures:
Faults, joints and veins 165 8.2.1 Planar brittle features - orientation
165 8.2.2 Determining past motion on brittle structures 170 8.3 Ductile
structures: Shear zones, foliations and folds 176 8.3.1 Orientation of
ductile planar features 176 8.3.2 Direction of shear/stretching: Stretching
lineations 180 8.3.3 Sense of shear: Kinematic indicators 182 8.3.4
Magnitude of shear strain 185 8.3.5 Fold analysis 185 8.4 Further reading
191 9 RECORDING FEATURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 192 9.1 Basic skills and
equipment for metamorphic fi eldwork 192 9.1.1 Field relations and context
192 9.2 Textures 194 9.2.1 Banding 194 9.2.2 Grain textures 196 9.2.3
Reaction textures 197 9.3 Mineralogy 198 9.3.1 Identifying common
metamorphic minerals 198 9.3.2 Using mineral assemblages 198 9.3.3 Classifi
cation of metamorphic rocks 200 9.4 Unravelling metamorphism and
deformation 201 9.4.1 Pre-kinematic features 202 9.4.2 Syn-kinematic
features 202 9.4.3 Post-kinematic features 203 9.5 Further reading 205 10
MAKING A GEOLOGICAL MAP 206 10.1 Principles and aims 206 10.2 Preparation
and materials 207 10.2.1 Base maps and other aids 207 10.2.2 Equipment for
mapping 212 10.3 Location, location, location 214 10.3.1 Equipment 214
10.3.2 Using base maps 214 10.4 Making a fi eld map 216 10.4.1 Information
to record on fi eld maps 216 10.4.2 The evolving map 218 10.4.3 Sketch
cross-sections 221 10.5 Mapping techniques 222 10.5.1 Traverse mapping 223
10.5.2 Contact mapping 225 10.5.3 Exposure mapping 226 10.5.4 Using other
evidence 228 10.6 The geological map 233 10.6.1 Inking in the fi eld map
233 10.6.2 Cross-sections 235 10.6.3 Fair copy maps 235 10.6.4 Digital maps
and GIS 239 10.7 Further reading 240 11 RECORDING NUMERICAL DATA AND USE OF
INSTRUMENTS IN THE FIELD 241 11.1 Data collection 241 11.1.1 Instrument
calibration and base stations 244 11.1.2 Survey grids 244 11.2 Transport
and protection of the instruments 245 11.3 Correlation with other data sets
245 11.4 Further reading 246 12 PHOTOGRAPHY 247 13 SAMPLING 250 13.1
Selecting and labelling samples 250 13.1.1 Samples for thin-sections 251
13.1.2 Orientated samples 251 13.1.3 Samples for geochemical analysis 253
13.1.4 Samples for mineral extraction 253 13.1.5 Samples for fossils 253
13.1.6 Sampling for regional studies 254 13.1.7 High-resolution sample sets
254 13.1.8 Labelling samples and their packaging 255 13.2 Practical advice
256 13.2.1 Packing and marking materials 256 13.2.2 Extraction of samples
257 14 CONCLUDING REMARKS 259 14.1 Further reading on scientifi c report
writing 260 REFERENCES 261 APPENDIX A1: GENERAL 263 APPENDIX A5: FOSSILS
265 APPENDIX A6: SEDIMENTARY 273 APPENDIX A7: IGNEOUS 293 APPENDIX A8:
STRUCTURAL 296 APPENDIX A9: METAMORPHIC 302 APPENDIX A10: MAPPING 306 Index
310