This book provides the fundamentals, recent developments, and future research needs for critical mercury transformation and transport processes, as well as the experimental methods that have been employed in the recent studies. The coverage discusses the environmental behavior and toxicological effects of mercury on organisms, including humans, and provides case studies at the end of each chapter. Bringing together information normally spread across several books, this text is unique in covering the entire mercury cycle and providing a baseline for what is known and what uncertainties remain…mehr
This book provides the fundamentals, recent developments, and future research needs for critical mercury transformation and transport processes, as well as the experimental methods that have been employed in the recent studies. The coverage discusses the environmental behavior and toxicological effects of mercury on organisms, including humans, and provides case studies at the end of each chapter. Bringing together information normally spread across several books, this text is unique in covering the entire mercury cycle and providing a baseline for what is known and what uncertainties remain in respect to mercury cycling. The book that looks at mercury's impact on the planet today Recent research by the EPA has concluded that one in six women of childbearing age have unsafe levels of mercury in their bodies, which puts 630,000 newborn babies each year at risk of neurological impairment. Mercury poses severe risks to the health of animals and ecosystems around the world, and this book provides the essential information that anyone interested in environmental sciences should know about the fundamentals of the entire mercury cycle. Comprised of four parts that present an overview of mercury in the environment, mercury transformations, transport, and bioaccumulation and toxicology, each chapter of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology of Mercury includes the basic concepts of the targeted subject, a critical review of that subject, and the future research needs. This book explains the environmental behavior and toxicological effects of mercury on humans and other organisms, and provides a baseline for what is known and what uncertainties remain in respect to mercury cycling. The chapters focus on the fundamental science underlying the environmental chemistry and fate of mercury. This work will be invaluable to a wide range of policy experts, environmental scientists, and other people requiring a comprehensive source for the state of the science in this field.
Guangliang Liu, PhD, is Research Scientist in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, where he manages the Mercury Laboratory. Yong Cai, PhD, is Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University. He has been working on environmental chemistry and the geochemistry of mercury for almost twenty years. Nelson O'Driscoll, PhD, is Canada Research Chair in Environmental Biogeochemistry and Associate Professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Acadia University.
Inhaltsangabe
PREFACE xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv CONTRIBUTORS xvii 1 OVERVIEW OF MERCURY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 1 Guangliang Liu, Yong Cai, Nelson O'Driscoll, Xinbin Feng, and Guibin Jiang 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Toxicity and Health Risks of Mercury Exposure 2 1.3 Sources of Mercury 2 1.4 Overview of Mercury Biogeochemical Cycling 7 1.5 Structure of the Book 8 1.6 Concluding Remarks 9 References 9 PART I ANALYTICAL DEVELOPMENTS 13 2 ADVANCES IN SPECIATION ANALYSIS OF MERCURY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 15 Yanbin Li, Yongguang Yin, Guangliang Liu, and Yong Cai 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Sample Preparation for Hg Speciation in Environmental Samples 16 2.3 Application of GC Technique in Hg Speciation Analysis 32 2.4 Application of HPLC Technique in Hg Speciation Analysis 36 2.5 Application of Capillary Electrophoresis Techniques in Hg Speciation Analysis 39 2.6 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Probing Chemical Microenvironment of Hg 40 2.7 Application of Stable Isotope Dilution Technique in Mercury Speciation Analysis 41 2.8 Summary 43 References 44 3 MEASURING GAS PHASE MERCURY EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS 59 Samuel J. Ippolito, Ylias M. Sabri, and Suresh K. Bhargava 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Standardized Methods for Measuring Mercury 72 3.3 Mercury Continuous Emission Monitors (CEMs) 81 3.4 Future Outlook 95 References 96 PART II SPECIATION AND TRANSFORMATION 111 4 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY OF MERCURY 113 Che-Jen Lin, Pattaraporn Singhasuk, and Simo O. Pehkonen 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 The Overall Picture 114 4.3 Chemical Transformations in the Gas Phase 118 4.4 Chemical Transformations in the Aqueous Phase 131 4.5 Redox Chemistry at the Interface Between the Atmosphere and Earth's Surfaces 136 4.6 Atmospheric Implications of the Identified Redox Pathways 139 4.7 Future Research Needs 143 References 144 5 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE MERCURY CYCLE 155 Chu-Ching Lin, Nathan Yee, and Tamar Barkay 5.1 Introduction 155 5.2 Mercury Methylation 158 5.3 Methylmercury Degradation 168 5.4 Redox Cycling of Inorganic Hg 169 5.5 Conclusions 179 References 180 6 PHOTOREACTIONS OF MERCURY IN AQUATIC SYSTEMS 193 Emma E. Vost, Marc Amyot, and Nelson J. O'Driscoll 6.1 Significance of Mercury Photoreactions 193 6.2 Concepts in Mercury Photoreactions 194 6.3 Current Methods in Mercury Photochemistry 209 6.4 Summary 211 References 212 7 CHEMICAL SPECIATION OF MERCURY IN SOIL AND SEDIMENT 219 Ulf Skyllberg 7.1 Introduction 219 7.2 Physicochemical Properties, Oxidation States, Chemical Forms, Structures, and Concentrations of Mercury in the Environment 220 7.3 Aqueous Phase: Major Ligands and Their Affinities for Mercury(II) 222 7.4 Liquid and Solid Phases of Mercury in Soils and Sediments 229 7.5 Reactions of Mercury(II) with Soil and Sediment Particle Surfaces 231 7.6 Stabilization of Nanoparticulate Mercury(II) Sulfides by Natural Organic Matter 237 7.7 Solubility and Chemical Speciation of Mercury(II) in Soils and Sediments 237 7.8 Methods for Studying the Chemistry of Mercury(II) in Soils and Sediments 248 7.9 Future Research Needs 249 References 252 8 THE EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER ON MERCURY BIOGEOCHEMISTRY 259 Chase A. Gerbig, Joseph N. Ryan, and George R. Aiken 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 Dissolved Organic Matter 260 8.3 Field Observations 263 8.4 Effects of DOM on Mercury Distributions Between Solution and Particles 265 8.5 Mercury Binding Strength 268 8.6 Mercury Binding Environment 271 8.7 Methylmercury Binding Strength and Environment 274 8.8 DOM and Mercury Mineral Dissolution 276 8.9 DOM and Mercury Mineral Precipitation 280 References 284 9 TRACKING GEOCHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND TRANSPORT OF MERCURY THROUGH ISOTOPE FRACTIONATION 293 Holger Hintelmann and Wang Zheng 9.1 Introduction 293 9.2 Fractionation of Mercury Isotopes in Environmental Processes 300 9.3 Hg Isotope Variations in Nature 315 9.4 Summary 319 References 320 PART III TRANSPORT AND FATE 329 10 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT OF MERCURY 331 Oleg Travnikov 10.1 Introduction 331 10.2 General Concepts of Mercury Cycling in the Atmosphere 331 10.3 Methods for Studying Atmospheric Mercury Transport 336 10.4 Assessments of Airborne Mercury Pollution 342 10.5 Knowledge Gaps 354 References 356 11 ADSORPTION OF MERCURY ON SOLIDS IN THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 367 Guangliang Liu, Yanbin Li, and Yong Cai 11.1 Introduction 367 11.2 Adsorption of Mercury on Solids 369 11.3 Role of Colloids in Mercury Adsorption 374 11.4 Concluding Remarks 380 References 381 12 EXCHANGE OF ELEMENTAL MERCURY BETWEEN THE OCEANS AND THE ATMOSPHERE 389 Asif Qureshi, Matthew Macleod, Elsie Sunderland, and Konrad Hungerbü hler 12.1 Introduction 389 12.2 Models of Gas Exchange of Elemental Mercury at the Air-Sea Interface 390 12.3 Field Studies of Ocean-To-Air Fluxes of Mercury 398 12.4 Rate Constants for Reduction and Oxidation of Mercury Species in Ocean Waters 400 12.5 Modeling Studies Estimating Oceanic Air-Sea Exchange 411 12.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 415 References 416 13 EXCHANGE OF MERCURY BETWEEN THE ATMOSPHERE AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS 423 Mae Sexauer Gustin 13.1 General Overview 423 13.2 Methods and Tools Applied for Measurement and Understanding of Air-Terrestrial Surface Exchange 425 13.3 Measured Fluxes 433 13.4 Conclusions 442 References 444 PART IV BIOACCUMULATION, TOXICITY, AND METALLOMICS 453 14 BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION OF MERCURY THROUGH FOOD WEBS 455 Karen Kidd, Meredith Clayden, and Tim Jardine 14.1 Introduction 455 14.2 Mercury in Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms 457 14.3 Mercury within Organisms 464 14.4 Factors Affecting Mercury in Biota 465 14.5 Biomagnification of Mercury Through Food Webs 474 14.6 Mercury Stable Isotopes in Bioaccumulation Studies 481 14.7 Case Study--Kejimkujik National Park and Historic Site, Nova Scotia, Canada 482 14.8 Conclusions 484 References 485 15 A REVIEW OF MERCURY TOXICITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO METHYLMERCURY 501 Mineshi Sakamoto, Katsuyuki Murata, Akiyoshi Kakita, and Masanori Sasaki 15.1 Introduction 501 15.2 Global Mercury Emission into the Atmosphere 502 15.3 Metabolism and Toxicity of Chemical Forms of Mercury 503 15.4 Risk Assessment of Prenatal Exposure to Methylmercury 509 15.5 Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption for Brain Development 510 15.6 Exceptional Methylmercury Exposure Through Rice 510 15.7 Summary 511 References 511 16 METALLOMICS OF MERCURY: ROLE OF THIOLAND SELENOL-CONTAINING BIOMOLECULES 517 Feiyue Wang, Marcos Lemes, and Mohammad A.K. Khan 16.1 Introduction 517 16.2 Metallomics of Mercury 517 16.3 Mercury and Methylmercury Complexes with Thiol-Containing Biomolecules 519 16.4 Mercury and Methylmercury Binding to Selenol-Containing Biomolecules 522 16.5 Lability of Mercury or Methylmercury Complexes with Thiols or Selenols 524 16.6 Thiol-Containing Biomolecules in the Uptake and Metabolism of Mercury 526 16.7 Selenium Aided Biomineralization of Mercury and Methylmercury 529 16.8 Analytical and Modeling Approaches 531 16.9 Conclusion 538 References 538 17 HUMAN HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF DIETARY EXPOSURES TO METHYLMERCURY 545 Anna L. Choi and Philippe Grandjean 17.1 Introduction 545 17.2 Methylmercury Exposure 546 17.3 Nutrients in Fish and Seafood 548 17.4 Major Prospective Cohort Studies 549 17.5 Health Effects 552 17.6 Cardiovascular Outcomes 555 17.7 Nutrient and Methylmercury Exposure as Predictors of Developmental Outcomes 556 17.8 Confounding Variables 557 17.9 Risk Assessment and Exposure Imprecision 558 17.10 Conclusions 559 References 561 INDEX 569
PREFACE xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv CONTRIBUTORS xvii 1 OVERVIEW OF MERCURY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 1 Guangliang Liu, Yong Cai, Nelson O'Driscoll, Xinbin Feng, and Guibin Jiang 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Toxicity and Health Risks of Mercury Exposure 2 1.3 Sources of Mercury 2 1.4 Overview of Mercury Biogeochemical Cycling 7 1.5 Structure of the Book 8 1.6 Concluding Remarks 9 References 9 PART I ANALYTICAL DEVELOPMENTS 13 2 ADVANCES IN SPECIATION ANALYSIS OF MERCURY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 15 Yanbin Li, Yongguang Yin, Guangliang Liu, and Yong Cai 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Sample Preparation for Hg Speciation in Environmental Samples 16 2.3 Application of GC Technique in Hg Speciation Analysis 32 2.4 Application of HPLC Technique in Hg Speciation Analysis 36 2.5 Application of Capillary Electrophoresis Techniques in Hg Speciation Analysis 39 2.6 Application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy in Probing Chemical Microenvironment of Hg 40 2.7 Application of Stable Isotope Dilution Technique in Mercury Speciation Analysis 41 2.8 Summary 43 References 44 3 MEASURING GAS PHASE MERCURY EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS 59 Samuel J. Ippolito, Ylias M. Sabri, and Suresh K. Bhargava 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Standardized Methods for Measuring Mercury 72 3.3 Mercury Continuous Emission Monitors (CEMs) 81 3.4 Future Outlook 95 References 96 PART II SPECIATION AND TRANSFORMATION 111 4 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY OF MERCURY 113 Che-Jen Lin, Pattaraporn Singhasuk, and Simo O. Pehkonen 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 The Overall Picture 114 4.3 Chemical Transformations in the Gas Phase 118 4.4 Chemical Transformations in the Aqueous Phase 131 4.5 Redox Chemistry at the Interface Between the Atmosphere and Earth's Surfaces 136 4.6 Atmospheric Implications of the Identified Redox Pathways 139 4.7 Future Research Needs 143 References 144 5 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE MERCURY CYCLE 155 Chu-Ching Lin, Nathan Yee, and Tamar Barkay 5.1 Introduction 155 5.2 Mercury Methylation 158 5.3 Methylmercury Degradation 168 5.4 Redox Cycling of Inorganic Hg 169 5.5 Conclusions 179 References 180 6 PHOTOREACTIONS OF MERCURY IN AQUATIC SYSTEMS 193 Emma E. Vost, Marc Amyot, and Nelson J. O'Driscoll 6.1 Significance of Mercury Photoreactions 193 6.2 Concepts in Mercury Photoreactions 194 6.3 Current Methods in Mercury Photochemistry 209 6.4 Summary 211 References 212 7 CHEMICAL SPECIATION OF MERCURY IN SOIL AND SEDIMENT 219 Ulf Skyllberg 7.1 Introduction 219 7.2 Physicochemical Properties, Oxidation States, Chemical Forms, Structures, and Concentrations of Mercury in the Environment 220 7.3 Aqueous Phase: Major Ligands and Their Affinities for Mercury(II) 222 7.4 Liquid and Solid Phases of Mercury in Soils and Sediments 229 7.5 Reactions of Mercury(II) with Soil and Sediment Particle Surfaces 231 7.6 Stabilization of Nanoparticulate Mercury(II) Sulfides by Natural Organic Matter 237 7.7 Solubility and Chemical Speciation of Mercury(II) in Soils and Sediments 237 7.8 Methods for Studying the Chemistry of Mercury(II) in Soils and Sediments 248 7.9 Future Research Needs 249 References 252 8 THE EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER ON MERCURY BIOGEOCHEMISTRY 259 Chase A. Gerbig, Joseph N. Ryan, and George R. Aiken 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 Dissolved Organic Matter 260 8.3 Field Observations 263 8.4 Effects of DOM on Mercury Distributions Between Solution and Particles 265 8.5 Mercury Binding Strength 268 8.6 Mercury Binding Environment 271 8.7 Methylmercury Binding Strength and Environment 274 8.8 DOM and Mercury Mineral Dissolution 276 8.9 DOM and Mercury Mineral Precipitation 280 References 284 9 TRACKING GEOCHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND TRANSPORT OF MERCURY THROUGH ISOTOPE FRACTIONATION 293 Holger Hintelmann and Wang Zheng 9.1 Introduction 293 9.2 Fractionation of Mercury Isotopes in Environmental Processes 300 9.3 Hg Isotope Variations in Nature 315 9.4 Summary 319 References 320 PART III TRANSPORT AND FATE 329 10 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT OF MERCURY 331 Oleg Travnikov 10.1 Introduction 331 10.2 General Concepts of Mercury Cycling in the Atmosphere 331 10.3 Methods for Studying Atmospheric Mercury Transport 336 10.4 Assessments of Airborne Mercury Pollution 342 10.5 Knowledge Gaps 354 References 356 11 ADSORPTION OF MERCURY ON SOLIDS IN THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 367 Guangliang Liu, Yanbin Li, and Yong Cai 11.1 Introduction 367 11.2 Adsorption of Mercury on Solids 369 11.3 Role of Colloids in Mercury Adsorption 374 11.4 Concluding Remarks 380 References 381 12 EXCHANGE OF ELEMENTAL MERCURY BETWEEN THE OCEANS AND THE ATMOSPHERE 389 Asif Qureshi, Matthew Macleod, Elsie Sunderland, and Konrad Hungerbü hler 12.1 Introduction 389 12.2 Models of Gas Exchange of Elemental Mercury at the Air-Sea Interface 390 12.3 Field Studies of Ocean-To-Air Fluxes of Mercury 398 12.4 Rate Constants for Reduction and Oxidation of Mercury Species in Ocean Waters 400 12.5 Modeling Studies Estimating Oceanic Air-Sea Exchange 411 12.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 415 References 416 13 EXCHANGE OF MERCURY BETWEEN THE ATMOSPHERE AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS 423 Mae Sexauer Gustin 13.1 General Overview 423 13.2 Methods and Tools Applied for Measurement and Understanding of Air-Terrestrial Surface Exchange 425 13.3 Measured Fluxes 433 13.4 Conclusions 442 References 444 PART IV BIOACCUMULATION, TOXICITY, AND METALLOMICS 453 14 BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION OF MERCURY THROUGH FOOD WEBS 455 Karen Kidd, Meredith Clayden, and Tim Jardine 14.1 Introduction 455 14.2 Mercury in Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms 457 14.3 Mercury within Organisms 464 14.4 Factors Affecting Mercury in Biota 465 14.5 Biomagnification of Mercury Through Food Webs 474 14.6 Mercury Stable Isotopes in Bioaccumulation Studies 481 14.7 Case Study--Kejimkujik National Park and Historic Site, Nova Scotia, Canada 482 14.8 Conclusions 484 References 485 15 A REVIEW OF MERCURY TOXICITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO METHYLMERCURY 501 Mineshi Sakamoto, Katsuyuki Murata, Akiyoshi Kakita, and Masanori Sasaki 15.1 Introduction 501 15.2 Global Mercury Emission into the Atmosphere 502 15.3 Metabolism and Toxicity of Chemical Forms of Mercury 503 15.4 Risk Assessment of Prenatal Exposure to Methylmercury 509 15.5 Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption for Brain Development 510 15.6 Exceptional Methylmercury Exposure Through Rice 510 15.7 Summary 511 References 511 16 METALLOMICS OF MERCURY: ROLE OF THIOLAND SELENOL-CONTAINING BIOMOLECULES 517 Feiyue Wang, Marcos Lemes, and Mohammad A.K. Khan 16.1 Introduction 517 16.2 Metallomics of Mercury 517 16.3 Mercury and Methylmercury Complexes with Thiol-Containing Biomolecules 519 16.4 Mercury and Methylmercury Binding to Selenol-Containing Biomolecules 522 16.5 Lability of Mercury or Methylmercury Complexes with Thiols or Selenols 524 16.6 Thiol-Containing Biomolecules in the Uptake and Metabolism of Mercury 526 16.7 Selenium Aided Biomineralization of Mercury and Methylmercury 529 16.8 Analytical and Modeling Approaches 531 16.9 Conclusion 538 References 538 17 HUMAN HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF DIETARY EXPOSURES TO METHYLMERCURY 545 Anna L. Choi and Philippe Grandjean 17.1 Introduction 545 17.2 Methylmercury Exposure 546 17.3 Nutrients in Fish and Seafood 548 17.4 Major Prospective Cohort Studies 549 17.5 Health Effects 552 17.6 Cardiovascular Outcomes 555 17.7 Nutrient and Methylmercury Exposure as Predictors of Developmental Outcomes 556 17.8 Confounding Variables 557 17.9 Risk Assessment and Exposure Imprecision 558 17.10 Conclusions 559 References 561 INDEX 569
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