List of Contributors xvii
About the Editors xxiii
Preface xxv
1 Desalination Technologies: Harnessing the Ocean for Freshwater Solutions 1
Ambika Kumar, Deepika Dimri, Anshu Kumar, Abhijeet Ghosh, and Rajneesh Kumar
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Desalination Technologies Overview 3
1.3 Conventional Desalination Technologies 5
1.3.1 Reverse Osmosis 5
1.3.1.1 Description and Working Principle 6
1.3.1.2 Technological Challenges and the Future of RO 7
1.3.2 MSF Distillation 8
1.3.2.1 Key Operational Parameters and Energy Requirements 8
1.3.3 Multi-effect Distillation 9
1.3.4 Electro Dialysis 10
1.3.4.1 Applications in Brackish Water Desalination 11
1.4 Emerging Desalination Technologies 11
1.4.1 Nanotechnology-based Membranes 11
1.4.2 Geothermal Desalination 11
1.4.3 Capacitive Deionization 12
1.4.4 Membrane Distillation 12
1.4.5 Advanced Reverse Osmosis 12
1.4.6 Forward Osmosis 13
1.4.7 Potential Advantages Over Traditional Methods 13
1.5 Energy Sources for Desalination 14
1.5.1 Conventional Energy Sources 14
1.5.2 RE Integration 14
1.6 Economic and Environmental Considerations 15
1.6.1 Cost Analysis of Desalination Technologies 15
1.6.2 Environmental Impact Assessments 16
1.7 Future Directions in Desalination Research 16
1.8 Conclusion 17
Acknowledgements 18
References 18
2 Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems for Water Resource Management: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions 23
S. Ganjingla, Imokokla Imsong, Ranika Roy, Susmita Reang, Ashutosh Tripathi-II, and Ashutosh Tripathi-I
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Factors Affecting Water Resources 25
2.2.1 Rainfall (Indian Summer Monsoon) 25
2.2.2 Surface Water 25
2.2.3 Groundwater 26
2.2.4 Water Demand and Availability 26
2.3 Ecological Renewal in Water Resource Management: The Need 27
2.4 Importance of the Aquatic Ecosystem 28
2.5 Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems 29
2.5.1 Principles of Restoration: Sustainable Solutions 31
2.5.1.1 Addressing the Root Cause of Degradation 32
2.5.1.2 Restoring Ecological Integrity 32
2.5.1.3 Nature-based Solutions: Climate Resilience and Adaptation 33
2.5.2 Restoring Native and Keystone Species 35
2.5.2.1 Restoring Hydrological Flow and Natural Regimes 36
2.5.2.2 Incorporating Technological Yet Cost-effective and Measurable Methods of Restoration Aligning with Adaptive Management 36
2.5.2.3 Integrating Stronger Legal and Financial Support for Sustainable Restoration 38
2.5.2.4 Community-led Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration: Integrating Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITKs) 39
2.6 Conclusion 40
References 41
3 Groundwater Nitrate as a Key Concern of Water Scarcity in Arid Environment: A Special Focus on MENA Region 49
Bedour Alsabti, Chidambaram Sabarathinam, Dhanu Radha Samayamanthula, Amjad Al-Rashidi, and Sara Al-Haddad
3.1 Introduction 49
3.1.1 Study Area 51
3.1.2 Literature and Data Collection Strategy 53
3.2 Nitrate Levels in the MENA Region 53
3.3 Nitrate Natural (Geogenic) Sources in Groundwater 56
3.3.1 Other Geogenic Contaminants in Groundwater in the MENA Region 57
3.4 Anthropogenic Sources of Nitrate in Groundwater 58
3.4.1 Agriculture 58
3.4.2 Wastewater 58
3.5 Isotopic Evidence for Nitrate Contamination 60
3.6 Role of Ionic Ratios to Identify the Sources of Nitrate 60
3.7 Processes and Evolution Governing Nitrate in Groundwater 60
3.8 Mitigation and Strategies 61
3.9 Recommendation 62
Acknowledgements 62
References 63
4 Global Perspectives on the Impact of Climate Change on Water Scarcity, Including Regional Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation Strategies 73
Deepika Dimri, Mayank Singh Bhakuni, Kamal Kant Joshi, Aparna Sarin, and Ambika Kumar
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Regional Vulnerabilities of Water Scarcity as a Consequence of Climate Change Across the World 75
4.2.1 Water Scarcity in Africa 75
4.2.2 Water Scarcity in Asia 77
4.2.3 Water Scarcity in the Mediterranean and Middle East Regions 80
4.2.4 Water Scarcity in America 81
4.2.5 Water Scarcity in Australia 82
4.2.6 Water Scarcity Issue in the Transboundary River Basin 82
4.3 Planned Adaptation to Water Scarcity 83
4.4 Conclusion 84
References 84
5 An Overview of Seawater Desalination Techniques, Challenges, and Opportunities 89
Majid Peyravi and Zahra Goli Sangchi
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Thermal Desalination 90
5.2.1 Multistage Flash 91
5.2.2 Multi-effect Distillation 92
5.2.3 Vapor Compression Distillation 93
5.3 Membrane-based Desalination 93
5.3.1 Electrodialysis 94
5.3.2 Reverse Osmosis 94
5.4 Hybrid Desalination Technologies 95
5.4.1 ED-RO Hybrid Process 96
5.4.1.1 Pretreatment of Entry Water 96
5.4.1.2 ED as Pretreatment 96
5.4.1.3 RO for Final Purification 97
5.4.1.4 Brine Management 97
5.4.1.5 Categories of ED-RO Hybrid Configurations 97
5.4.2 FO-MD Hybrid Systems 98
5.4.2.1 Preparation of FS and DS 98
5.4.2.2 FO: Primary Water Separation 99
5.4.2.3 Transfer of DS to the MD Process 99
5.4.2.4 Recovery and Regeneration of DS 99
5.4.2.5 Collection and Disposal of Residual Wastewater 99
5.4.3 RO-MD Hybrid Systems 100
5.4.3.1 The Benefits and Drawbacks of RO-MD Systems 100
5.4.4 RO-FO Hybrid Systems 100
5.4.4.1 Marine Water Pretreatment Stage 101
5.4.4.2 Process (FO): Transfer of Water to the Absorbent DS 101
5.4.4.3 Separation of DS 101
5.4.4.4 Water Passing the RO Membrane for Ultimate Desalination 101
5.4.4.5 Wastewater Management and Energy Recovery 101
5.4.4.6 Generation of Potable Water as the Final Product 102
5.4.4.7 Configurations of RO-FO Hybrid Systems in Marine Desalination 102
5.5 Solar-powered Desalination 105
5.5.1 Direct Solar Desalination 105
5.5.2 Indirect Solar Desalination 105
5.5.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic 105
5.5.2.2 Solar Thermal 105
5.6 Conclusion 106
References 106
6 Examining the Causes of Water Scarcity in the World and the Impact of Water Economy 113
Majid Peyravi and Samaneh Karimi
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Water Crisis and Its Main Causes 113
6.3 The Importance of Studying Water Economics to Solve Crises 117
6.4 Dimensions of the Water Crisis 118
6.4.1 Reduction of Renewable Water Resources 118
6.4.2 Increase in Water Demand 119
6.4.3 Lack of Access to Clean Water 120
6.5 Water Economics 121
6.5.1 The Economic Value of Water 121
6.5.2 Water Resource Management 122
6.5.3 Problems in Water Resource Allocation 124
6.6 Economic Effects of the Water Crisis 125
6.6.1 Agriculture and Food Security 125
6.6.2 Industry and Production 128
6.6.3 Social and Health Impacts 129
6.7 Solutions and Strategies 129
References 130
7 Innovative Approaches to Marine Water Desalination and Sustainable Utilization 133
Nageswara Rao Lakkimsetty, Nourhan Hilal El Mohamad, Yahya Ali Hamadi, and Rahma Juma
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 Importance of Marine Water Desalination 134
7.3 Global Water Scarcity Concerns 135
7.4 Environmental Impacts and Energy Challenges 135
7.5 Need for Innovative and Sustainable Desalination Methods 136
7.6 Conventional Desalination Techniques 137
7.7 Recent Advancements in Desalination Technologies 139
7.8 Environmental Impact and Mitigation Measures 140
7.9 Economic Considerations and Cost-effectiveness Analysis 141
7.10 Case Studies and Real-world Applications 143
7.11 Future Directions and Research Opportunities 143
7.12 Conclusion and Recommendations 145
Acknowledgements 146
References 146
8 Advances in Water Resources Management by Protection and Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems 149
Punyavee Mohan, Ujjwalkant Singh, Kumar Ankush, Kartikey Bhatt, Nitya Rastogi, and Nidhi Verma
8.1 Introduction 149
8.2 Advancements in Water Management Strategies 150
8.2.1 Monitoring 150
8.2.2 Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystem 151
8.2.2.1 Habitat Restoration 151
8.2.2.2 Methods of Restoration 154
8.2.3 Protection of Aquatic Ecosystems 161
8.2.3.1 International Laws and Regulations 162
8.3 Prospects and Recommendation 164
8.3.1 Strengthening Global Cooperation and Knowledge-sharing 164
8.3.2 Enhancing Public Awareness and Education 164
8.3.3 Leveraging Emerging Technologies for Adaptive Management 164
8.4 Conclusion 165
References 165
9 Groundwater Scarcity and Socioeconomic Impact Due to Coal Mining - Case Study on Shahdol District, Madhya Pradesh, India 175
Ramesh Kumar, Piyali Sabui, Aaradhana Bora, and Pallavi Das
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Study Area 177
9.3 Materials and Methods 178
9.4 Results and Discussion 179
9.4.1 Groundwater Scarcity 179
9.4.2 Socioeconomic Impacts 180
9.5 Conclusion 187
Acknowledgements 187
References 188
10 Groundwater Scarcity: Assessment, Monitoring, and Management in India Using Geospatial Techniques 191
Pankaj Kumar and Ravi Prakash Singh
10.1 Introduction 191
10.2 Status of Groundwater in India 193
10.3 Regional Groundwater Status 195
10.3.1 Groundwater Status in Northern India 197
10.3.2 Groundwater Status in Central and Western India 197
10.3.3 Groundwater Status in Southern India 197
10.3.4 Groundwater Status in Eastern India 197
10.3.5 Groundwater Status in Himalayan and Northeastern India 198
10.4 Geospatial Technologies Application in Groundwater Monitoring 198
10.4.1 RS for Groundwater Assessment 198
10.4.1.1 GRACE Satellite Mission and Groundwater Storage Trends 198
10.4.1.2 Optical and Microwave RS for Groundwater Monitoring 199
10.4.2 GIS-based Groundwater Potential Mapping 199
10.4.2.1 MCDA in Groundwater Studies 200
10.4.3 Hydro-climatic Models and Machine Learning Applications 200
10.4.3.1 ML and AI in Groundwater Studies 201
10.5 Geospatial Techniques in Groundwater Recharge Management 201
10.5.1 Geospatial Innovations for Real-time Groundwater Monitoring and Management 201
10.6 Summary and Conclusions 202
References 203
11 Revival and Rejuvenation of Aquatic Ecosystems for Water Resource Management 207
Priyanka Varma and Paulami Sahu
11.1 Introduction 207
11.2 Aquatic Ecosystem 207
11.2.1 Freshwater Ecosystem 208
11.2.1.1 Types of Freshwater Ecosystem 208
11.2.1.2 Causes and Threats to Water Resources 209
11.2.1.3 The Concepts of Revival and Rejuvenation 209
11.2.1.4 The Aim and Purpose of Conducting the Study 210
11.2.1.5 Treatment Processes 210
11.3 Conclusion 223
References 224
12 Understanding the Role of Water Scarcity in Natural Disaster Vulnerability: An Overview 229
Chitrangada Debsarma and Paulami Sahu
12.1 Introduction 229
12.2 Understanding Water Scarcity 231
12.2.1 Water Scarcity and Climate Change 232
12.3 Natural Disasters Linked to Water Scarcity 233
12.3.1 Droughts 233
12.3.2 Wildfires 235
12.3.3 Floods 236
12.4 Social and Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters 238
12.5 Case Studies 238
12.6 Strategies to Address Water Scarcity and Disaster Resilience 239
12.6.1 Technological Innovations in Water Scarcity and Disaster Management 241
12.7 Concluding Remarks 242
References 242
13 Role of Geogenic Contaminants in Water Scarcity and Remediation Approaches 249
Ayushi Priya, Deepansha Raina, Gaurav, Mohit Marwah, Sunila Hooda, and Shalini Swami
13.1 Introduction 249
13.2 Geogenic Contaminants: Origin, Types, and Their Impacts 250
13.2.1 Definition and Origin of Geogenic Contaminants 250
13.2.2 Geogenic Contaminants: Types and Their Ecological and Health Impacts 251
13.2.3 Effects of Contaminants on Flora and Fauna 252
13.3 Bioremediation as a Sustainable Removal Strategy 253
13.3.1 Fundamentals of Bioremediation and Its Significance in Water Management 253
13.3.2 Strategies in Bioremediation for the Removal of Geogenic Contaminants 254
13.3.2.1 Bioaugmentation 255
13.3.2.2 Bio-stimulation 255
13.3.2.3 Biosorption 255
13.3.2.4 Bioaccumulation 255
13.3.2.5 Bioleaching 255
13.3.2.6 Biotransformation 255
13.3.2.7 Bioprecipitation 255
13.3.3 Role of Microbial Communities in Bioremediation 256
13.3.4 Challenges in Bioremediation 257
13.4 Case Study: Bioremediation as an Approach to Reduce Geogenic Contamination 258
13.5 Strategies for Sustainable Water Management 259
13.5.1 Significance of Advanced Detection and Bioremediation in Mitigating Water Scarcity 259
13.5.2 Integration with Other Water Management Approaches for Generating Freshwater 260
13.5.3 Guidelines and Frameworks to Address Geogenic Contamination 261
13.6 Conclusion 261
References 262
14 Harnessing the Rain: A Path to Water Sustainability 269
Pushpendra Singh, Pooja Yadav, and Shruti Dutta
14.1 Introduction 269
14.1.1 The Concept of RWH 270
14.2 Historical Perspective 271
14.2.1 Traditional RWH Practices Across Civilizations 271
14.2.2 Stepwells in India 271
14.2.3 Cisterns in the Mediterranean 271
14.2.4 Other Notable RWH Practices 272
14.3 Evolution of Modern RWH Techniques 272
14.3.1 Early 20th-century Developments 272
14.3.2 Lessons from Indigenous and Traditional Knowledge 272
14.3.3 Technological Advancements in the Late 20th Century 273
14.3.4 The 21st-century Innovations 273
14.3.5 Global Policy and Advocacy 273
14.4 Components of RWH Systems 273
14.4.1 Catchment Area 274
14.4.2 Conveyance System 274
14.4.3 Filtration System 274
14.4.4 Storage Facility 275
14.4.5 Distribution System 275
14.5 RWH Techniques 275
14.5.1 Rooftop RWH 275
14.5.2 Surface Runoff Harvesting 276
14.5.3 Groundwater Recharge Systems 276
14.5.4 Rain Gardens and Bioswales 277
14.5.5 Storage Reservoirs and Ponds 277
14.5.6 Permeable Pavements 277
14.5.7 Check Dams and Contour Bunding 277
14.6 Benefits of RWH 278
14.6.1 Alleviating Water Scarcity 278
14.6.2 Reducing Groundwater Depletion 278
14.6.3 Mitigating Urban Flooding 278
14.6.4 Cost Savings 278
14.6.5 Environmental Benefits 278
14.6.6 Enhanced Water Quality 279
14.6.7 Supporting Agriculture 279
14.6.8 Climate Resilience 279
14.6.8.1 Regions with Increasing Rainfall 279
14.6.8.2 Regions with Declining Rainfall 279
14.6.8.3 Adaptability Across Extremes 280
14.6.9 Community Empowerment 280
14.6.10 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Preservation 280
14.7 Challenges in Implementing RWH 280
14.7.1 High Initial Costs 281
14.7.2 Maintenance and Operational Challenges 281
14.7.3 Water Quality Concerns 281
14.7.4 Limited Awareness and Education 281
14.7.5 Space Constraints in Urban Areas 282
14.7.6 Dependence on Rainfall Patterns 282
14.8 Global Success Stories of RWH 282
14.8.1 Singapore: The NEWater Initiative 282
14.8.2 Australia: The City of Toowoomba 282
14.8.3 Germany: The Town of Emsdetten 283
14.8.4 South Africa: The Cape Town Initiative 283
14.8.5 United States: The City of Berkeley, California 283
14.9 Indian Success Stories of RWH 284
14.9.1 State-wide Implementation (Tamil Nadu) 284
14.9.2 The Village of Alwar (Rajasthan) 284
14.9.3 The City of Bangalore (Karnataka) 285
14.9.4 Success of Traditional Methods (Kerala) 285
14.9.5 RWH in Pune (Maharashtra) 285
14.10 Conclusion and Future Directions 285
14.10.1 Integration with Technology and Circular Water Use 286
14.10.2 Policy, Public-Private Partnerships, and Community Models 286
14.10.3 A Climate-resilient Future 286
References 286
15 Global Water Availability and Its Consumption in a Changing Climate: Management Strategies 291
Madhupriya, Sushil Kumar, Gavendra Pandey, Rakesh Kumar, and Sudesh Yadav
15.1 Introduction 291
15.2 Global Water Availability and Consumption 292
15.3 Interrelationship Between Water Scarcity and Climate Change 294
15.3.1 Rising Temperature 294
15.3.2 Changing Precipitation Pattern 295
15.3.3 Inland Surface Water 295
15.3.4 Groundwater Depletion 296
15.3.5 Management Strategies for Water Scarcity in Changing Climatic Conditions 296
15.3.6 Integrated Water Resources Management 296
15.3.7 Desalination and Water Recycling 298
15.3.8 Policies and Governance Initiatives 299
15.4 Case Studies 300
15.4.1 India: Water Scarcity and Management Strategies 300
15.4.2 African Countries: The Challenge of Water Insecurity 300
15.4.3 European Countries: Issue of Water Stress 301
15.5 Conclusion 302
References 302
16 Rainwater Harvesting: Strategies for Combating Water Scarcity 311
V.S. Yadav, R.V. Galkate, V.K. Chandola, V.K. Tripathi, Samikshya Panda, Chinmaya Panda, and Harshita Rani Ahirwar
16.1 Introduction 311
16.1.1 RWH Technologies 315
16.1.2 Potential of RWH Technology 317
16.1.3 Benefits, Limitations, and Challenges of RWH Technology 318
16.1.4 Necessity of RWH in India in Recent Times 319
16.2 Hypothetical Case Study on Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting in Bengaluru City 319
16.2.1 Problem Statement 320
16.2.2 Study Area 320
16.2.3 Case Study Description 321
16.2.3.1 Annual Water Requirement 321
16.2.3.2 Rainwater Collection Potential 322
16.2.3.3 Potential of RWH on an Annual Basis 322
16.3 Summary and Conclusion 324
References 324
17 Restoration Strategies for Rivers and Wetlands Affected by Overextraction of Water 331
Vamsi Krishna Kudapa
17.1 Introduction 331
17.2 Rivers and Wetlands Affected by Overextraction 332
17.2.1 Hydrological Alterations 333
17.2.1.1 Reduced Streamflow 333
17.2.1.2 Drop in Groundwater Level 334
17.2.1.3 Increasing Frequency of Drought 335
17.2.1.4 Changes in Sediment Transport 335
17.2.1.5 Decreased Water Quality: As Flows Decline, the Pollutant Concentrations Increase, Impacting Drinking Water Sources and Aquatic Habitats 337
17.2.2 Ecological Consequences 338
17.2.2.1 Plan to Reduce Damage to Wildlife Habitats by Reducing Water Overextraction 338
17.2.2.2 Decreased Water Purification and Flood Control 338
17.2.2.3 Alteration of Migration Patterns 339
17.2.3 Socioeconomic Impacts 339
17.2.3.1 Decrease in Fisheries and Agricultural Productivity 340
17.2.3.2 More Water Conflicts in Related Disciplines 341
17.2.3.3 Ecosystem Services Loss 341
17.3 Restoration Strategies 341
17.3.1 Hydrological Restoration 342
17.3.1.1 Environmental Flow Release 342
17.3.2 Ecological Engineering Strategies 344
17.3.2.1 Wetland Restoration and Creation 344
17.3.2.2 Riparian Buffer Zones 344
17.3.2.3 Bioengineering Techniques 345
17.3.3 Policy and Regulatory Actions 345
17.3.3.1 Restoration Strategies for Water Resources from Overextraction 345
17.3.3.2 Water Allocation Policies 345
17.3.4 Integrated Water Resources Management 347
17.3.4.1 Watershed Management Plans 347
17.3.4.2 Stakeholder Engagement 347
17.3.5 Legislative Frameworks 348
17.4 Case Studies of Successful Restoration Efforts 348
17.4.1 Case Study 1: The Murray-Darling Basin, Australia 348
17.4.2 Case Study 2: Aral Sea Restoration, Kazakhstan 348
17.4.3 Medina del Campo Groundwater Body, Spain 349
17.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 349
17.6 Conclusion 350
References 350
Index 353
