Preface xv
1 Preparation of Carbon Allotropes Using Different Methods 1
Omar Dagdag, Rajesh Haldhar, Seong-Cheol Kim, Elyor Berdimurodov, Sheerin Masroor, Ekemini D. Akpan and Eno E. Ebenso
Abbreviations 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Synthesis Methods 3
1.2.1 Synthesis of CNTs 3
1.2.1.1 Arc Discharge Method 3
1.2.1.2 Laser Ablation Method 4
1.2.1.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 5
1.2.1.4 Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PE-CVD) 7
1.2.2 Synthesis of CQDs 7
1.2.2.1 Arc Discharge 8
1.2.2.2 Laser Ablation 9
1.2.2.3 Acidic Oxidation 9
1.2.2.4 Combustion/Thermal Routes 10
1.2.2.5 Microwave Pyrolysis 10
1.2.2.6 Electrochemistry Method 10
1.2.2.7 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis 10
1.3 Conclusions 11
References 11
2 Carbon Allotrope Composites: Basics, Properties, and Applications 17
Sheerin Masroor
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Allotropes of Carbon 18
2.3 Basics of Carbon Allotrope Composites and Their Properties 22
2.4 Composites of Graphite or Graphite Oxide (GO) 22
2.4.1 Applications of Graphite Oxide 24
2.5 Composites of Graphene 24
2.5.1 Applications of Graphene Oxide 24
2.6 Composite of Graphite-Carbon Nanotube (Gr-CNT)/ Polythene or Silicon 25
2.6.1 Applications of Graphite-Carbon Nanotube (Gr-CNT)/ Polythene or Silicon 26
2.7 Graphene (or Graphene Oxide)-Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Composites 26
2.7.1 Applications of CNF Composites 26
2.8 Graphene-Fullerene Composites 26
2.8.1 Applications of Graphene-Fullerene Composites 26
2.9 Conclusion 27
References 27
3 Activation of Carbon Allotropes Through Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization: Attempts in Modifying Properties for Enhanced Performance 31
Richika Ganjoo, Shveta Sharma and Ashish Kumar
3.1 Introduction 32
3.1.1 Carbon Allotropes: Fundamentals and Properties 32
3.1.1.1 Graphite 34
3.1.1.2 Diamond 34
3.1.1.3 Graphene 35
3.1.1.4 Activated Carbon 36
3.1.1.5 Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerene 36
3.1.2 Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 37
3.1.2.1 Covalent Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 38
3.1.2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 39
3.2 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Allotropes 42
3.2.1 Biomedical 42
3.2.2 Waste Treatment 43
3.2.3 Pollutants Decontamination 43
3.2.4 Anticorrosive 44
3.2.5 Tribological 44
3.2.6 Catalytic 45
3.2.7 Reinforced Materials 46
3.3 Conclusions and Future Directions 47
References 47
4 Carbon Allotropes in Lead Removal 51
Shippi Dewangan, Amarpreet K. Bhatia and Nishtha Vaidya
4.1 Introduction 52
4.2 Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) 55
4.3 Dimension-Based Types of Carbon Nanomaterials 55
4.4 Purification of Water Using Fullerenes 56
4.5 Application of Graphene and Its Derivatives in Water Purification 57
4.6 Application of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Water Purification 58
4.7 Conclusion 66
References 67
5 Carbon Allotropes in Nickel Removal 73
Amarpreet K. Bhatia, Nishtha Vaidya and Shippi Dewangan
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 Carbon and Its Allotropes: As Remediation Technology for Ni 76
5.2.1 Nanotubes Based on Carbon 77
5.2.1.1 Overview 77
5.2.1.2 Features of CNTs 77
5.2.2 Fullerenes 80
5.2.3 Graphene 80
5.2.3.1 Overview 80
5.2.3.2 Properties 82
5.3 Removal of Ni in Wastewater by Use of Carbon Allotropes 83
5.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes for Ni Adsorption From Aqueous Solutions 83
5.3.2 Ni Adsorption From Aqueous Solutions on Composite Material of MWCNTs 84
5.3.3 GR and GO-Based Adsorbents for Removal of Ni 84
5.4 Conclusion 88
References 88
6 Molybdenum-Modified Carbon Allotropes in Wastewater Treatment 91
Madhur Babu Singh, Anirudh Pratap Singh Raman, Prashant Singh, Pallavi Jain and Kamlesh Kumari
6.1 Introduction 92
6.2 Carbon-Based Allotropes 93
6.2.1 Graphene 93
6.2.2 Graphite 93
6.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 95
6.2.4 Glassy Carbon (GC) 95
6.3 Molybdenum Disulfide 96
6.3.1 Synthesis of MoS 2 96
6.3.2 Physical Methods 97
6.3.3 Chemical Methods 98
6.3.4 Properties 99
6.4 Application of MoS 2 100
6.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 101
6.4.2 Catalyst 101
6.4.3 Desalination 101
6.4.4 Lubrication 102
6.4.5 Sensor 103
6.4.6 Electroanalytical 103
6.4.7 Biomedical 105
6.5 Molybdenum-Modified Carbon Allotropes in Wastewater Treatment 105
6.6 Conclusion 107
References 108
7 Carbon Allotropes in Other Metals (Cu, Zn, Fe etc.) Removal 113
Manoj Kumar Banjare, Kamalakanta Behera and Ramesh Kumar Banjare
7.1 Introduction 114
7.2 Carbon-Allotropes: Synthesis Methods, Applications and Future Perspectives 115
7.3 Reaffirmations of Heavy Metal Contaminations in Water and Their Toxic Effects 116
7.3.1 Copper 116
7.3.2 Zinc 116
7.3.3 Lead 119
7.3.4 Cadmium 119
7.3.5 Arsenic 119
7.4 Technology is Used to Treat Heavy Ions of Metal 119
7.4.1 Chemical Precipitation 119
7.4.2 Ion-Exchange 121
7.4.3 Adsorption 122
7.4.4 Membrane Filtration 123
7.4.5 Electrodialysis 124
7.4.6 Flotation 125
7.4.7 Electrochemical Treatment 126
7.4.8 Electroflotation 126
7.4.9 Coagulation and Flocculation 142
7.5 Factors Influencing How Heavy Metal Ions Adhere to CNTs 142
7.5.1 pH 142
7.5.2 Ionic Strength 143
7.5.3 CNT Dosage 143
7.5.4 Contact Time 143
7.5.5 Temperature 143
7.5.6 Thermodynamic Variables 143
7.5.7 CNT Regeneration 144
7.5.8 Isotherm Equation 144
7.5.9 Current Issues and the Need for Additional Study 144
7.6 Conclusions 144
Acknowledgments 145
References 145
8 Carbon Allotropes in Phenolic Compounds Removal 155
Manikandan Krishnamurthy and Meenakshisundaram Swaminathan
8.1 Introduction 156
8.2 Carbon Materials in Phenol Removal 159
8.2.1 Activated Carbon 159
8.2.2 Graphene 161
8.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 162
8.2.4 Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide 163
8.2.5 Graphitic Carbon Nitride 164
8.2.6 Carbon Materials in the Biodegradation of Phenols 165
8.3 Conclusions 166
References 166
9 Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 173
Elyor Berdimurodov, Khasan Berdimuradov, Ilyos Eliboyev, Abduvali Kholikov, Khamdam Akbarov, Nuritdin Kattaev, Dakeshwar Kumar Verma and Omar Dagdag
9.1 Introduction 174
9.1.1 Importance of Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 174
9.2 Main Part 175
9.2.1 Polymer-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 175
9.2.2 Graphene-Aerogels-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 179
9.3 Functionalized Graphene-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 183
9.4 Conclusions 187
References 187
10 Carbon Allotropes in Air Purification 191
Nishtha Vaidya, Amarpreet K. Bhatia and Shippi Dewangan
10.1 Introduction 192
10.2 Historical and Chemical Properties of Some Designated Carbon-Based Allotropes 194
10.3 Structure and Characteristics of Carbon Allotropes 194
10.4 Uses of Carbon Nanotube Filters for Removal of Air Pollutants 200
10.5 Physicochemical Characterization of CNTs 203
10.6 TiO 2 Nanofibers in a Simulated Air Purifier Under Visible Light Irradiation 204
10.7 Poly (Vinyl Pyrrolidone) (PVP) 204
10.8 VOCs 205
10.9 Heavy Metals 205
10.10 Particulate Matter (PM) 207
10.11 Techniques to Remove Air Pollutants and Improve Air Treatment Efficiency 208
10.12 Removal of NOX by Photochemical Oxidation Process 210
10.13 Chemically Adapted Nano-TiO 2 211
10.14 Alternative Nanoparticulated System 212
10.15 Photodegradation of NOX Evaluated for the ZnO-Based Systems 212
10.16 Synthesis and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 213
10.17 Mechanism of Technologies 215
10.18 Conclusion 221
References 222
11 Carbon Allotropes in Waste Decomposition and Management 229
Swati Sahu, Gajendra Singh Rathore and Sanjay Tiwari
11.1 Introduction 230
11.2 Management Methods for Waste 230
11.2.1 Landfilling 232
11.2.2 Incineration 232
11.2.3 Mechanical Recycling 232
11.2.3.1 Downcycling Method 233
11.2.3.2 Upcycling Method 233
11.3 Process of Pyrolysis: Waste Management to the Synthesis of Carbon Allotropes 233
11.4 Synthesis Methods to Produce Carbon-Based Materials From Waste Materials 235
11.4.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis 235
11.4.2 Batch Pyrolysis-Catalysis 237
11.4.3 CVD Method 237
11.4.4 Pyrolysis-Deposition Followed by CVD 238
11.4.5 Thermal Decomposition 238
11.4.6 Activation Techniques 239
11.4.6.1 Physical Activation Technique 239
11.4.6.2 Chemical Activation Technique 240
11.5 Use of Waste Materials for the Development of Carbon Allotropes 240
11.5.1 Synthesis of CNTs Using Waste Materials 240
11.5.2 Synthesis of Graphene Using Waste Materials 243
11.6 Applications for Carbon-Based Materials 245
11.6.1 CNTs 245
11.6.2 Graphene 247
11.6.3 Activated Carbon 247
11.7 Conclusions 248
References 249
12 Carbon Allotropes in a Sustainable Environment 257
Farhat A. Ansari
12.1 Introduction 258
12.2 Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes 258
12.2.1 Covalent Functionalization 258
12.2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization 260
12.3 Developments of Carbon Allotropes and Their Applications 261
12.4 Carbon Allotropes in Sustainable Environment 262
12.5 Carbon Allotropes Purification Process in the Treatment of Wastewater 263
12.5.1 Fullerenes 264
12.5.2 Bucky Paper Membrane (BP) 264
12.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 265
12.5.3.1 CNT Adsorption Mechanism 265
12.5.3.2 CNTs Ozone Method 266
12.5.3.3 CNTs-Fenton-Like Systems 267
12.5.3.4 CNTs-Persulfates Systems 268
12.5.3.5 CNTs-Ferrate/Permanganate Systems 269
12.5.4 Graphene 269
12.6 Removal of Various Pollutants 270
12.6.1 Arsenic 270
12.6.2 Drugs and Pharmaceuticals 274
12.6.3 Heavy Metals 279
12.6.4 Pesticides and Other Pest Controllers 280
12.6.5 Fluoride 285
12.7 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) Adsorption 287
12.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective 290
References 291
13 Carbonaceous Catalysts for Pollutant Degradation 303
Poonam Kaswan, Santimoy Khilari, Ankur Srivastava, Girijesh Kumar, Pratap K. Chhotaray, Mrituanjay D. Pandey and Kamalakanta Behera
13.1 Introduction 304
13.2 Strategies to Develop Carbon-Based Material 306
13.3 Advantages of Carbon-Based Metal Nanocomposites 308
13.4 Methods for the Development of Carbon-Based Nanocomposites 312
13.5 Carbon-Based Photocatalyst 313
13.5.1 Fullerene (C 60) 314
13.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes 315
13.5.3 Graphene 315
13.5.4 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C 3 N 4) 317
13.5.5 Diamond 318
13.6 Applications 319
13.6.1 Dye Degradation 319
13.6.2 Organic Transformation 321
13.6.3 NOx Removal 322
13.7 Factors Affecting Degradation 322
13.7.1 Radiation 322
13.7.2 Exfoliation 322
13.7.3 pH 323
13.7.4 Reaction Condition 323
13.7.5 Carbonaceous Material 323
13.8 Challenges 323
13.9 Conclusion and Future Aspects 324
Acknowledgments 325
Abbreviations 325
References 325
14 Importance and Contribution of Carbon Allotropes in a Green and Sustainable Environment 337
Ajay K. Singh
14.1 Introduction 338
14.1.1 Basic Aspects of Sustainability 338
14.2 Changes Being Observed in Nature and Their Effect on Our Planet 339
14.2.1 Water, Air, and Effect on Energy Generation 339
14.2.2 Air Quality 339
14.2.3 Pollution (Air/Water) 340
14.2.4 Carbon Footprint 341
14.2.5 Green House Effect 342
14.2.6 Ozone Layer Depletion 342
14.2.7 Temperature 343
14.2.8 Effect on Farm Products 343
14.2.9 Plastic 345
14.2.10 Radiation Pollution 346
14.3 Advantages of Green House Effect 346
14.3.1 Supports and Promotes Life 346
14.3.2 Photosynthesis 346
14.4 Industrial Sustainability 347
14.5 Corrosion and Its Implications 349
14.5.1 Corrosion 349
14.5.2 Corrosion and Sustainable Environment 350
14.5.3 Industrial Operations and Environmental Sustainability 352
14.5.4 Industrial Machinery Corrosion and Its Implications 353
14.6 Corrosion Control and Material Properties 355
14.6.1 Mechanical Properties 355
14.6.2 Corrosion Resistant Materials 358
14.6.3 Design Consideration 358
14.6.4 Erosion Corrosion 358
14.6.5 Cathodic/Anodic Protection 360
14.6.6 Corrosion Inhibitors 361
14.6.7 Nanomaterials 362
14.7 Carbon Allotropes and Corrosion Inhibition 363
14.7.1 Carbon Dots (CD) or Carbon Quantum Dots (cqd) 364
14.7.2 Buckminster Fullerene C 60 366
14.7.3 Graphene 369
14.7.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 373
14.8 Conclusion 377
14.8.1 Commercialization 378
14.8.2 Synergy in Mixed Nanohybrids 379
References 379
Index 383
