Preface xiii
List of Symbols xv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Soil Behavior in Civil and Environmental Engineering 1
1.2 Scope and Organization 3
1.3 Getting Started 3
Part I Soil Formation, Composition, Characterization 5
CHAPTER 2 SOIL FORMATION 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 The Earth's Crust 7
2.3 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time 8
2.4 Rock and Mineral Stability 9
2.5 Weathering 10
2.6 Origin of Clay Minerals and Clay Genesis 16
2.7 Residual Soils 17
2.8 Sediment Erosion, Transport, and Deposition 20
2.9 Terrestrial Deposits 25
2.10 Mixed Continental and Marine Deposits 27
2.11 Marine Deposits 28
2.12 Chemical and Biological Deposits 31
2.13 Hard Soils and Soft Rocks 32
2.14 Fills 33
2.15 Tailings 33
2.16 Post-Depositional Changes in Sediments 34
2.17 Structure Development 39
2.18 Soil Profiles and Taxonomy 44
2.19 Concluding Comments 47
CHAPTER 3 SOIL MINEROLOGY 49
3.1 Importance of Soil Mineralogy in Geotechnical Engineering 49
3.2 Atomic Structure 50
3.3 Interatomic Bonding 51
3.4 Secondary Bonds 51
3.5 Crystals and their Properties 52
3.6 Factors Controlling Crystal Structures 55
3.7 Silicate Crystals 56
3.8 Surfaces 58
3.9 Nonclay Mineral Particles 59
3.10 Structural Units of Clay Minerals 60
3.11 Synthesis Pattern and Classification of the Clay Minerals 65
3.12 Intersheet and Interlayer Bonding in the Clay Minerals 66
3.13 The 1:1 Minerals 67
3.14 Smectite Minerals 70
3.15 Micalike Clay Minerals 73
3.16 Other Clay Minerals 74
3.17 Determination of Soil Composition 76
3.18 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 79
3.19 Microscopy 82
3.20 Other Methods for Compositional Analysis 85
3.21 Quantitative Estimation of Soil Components 86
3.22 Concluding Comments 87
CHAPTER 4 SOIL-WATER-CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS 89
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Nature of Ice and Water 90
4.3 Influence of Dissolved Ions on Water Structure 91
4.4 Mechanisms for Soil-Water Interaction 92
4.5 Observations and Evidence of Structure and Properties of Adsorbed Water 96
4.6 Clays as Colloidal Particles 100
4.7 Elements of Double-Layer Theory 100
4.8 Electrostatic Forces from the DLVO Theory 105
4.9 Influences of System Variables on the Double Layer 106
4.10 Long-Range Attraction: Van Der Waals Forces 107
4.11 Net Energy of Interaction: Combining Electrostatic and Van Der Waals Forces 108
4.12 Limitations of the DLVO Layer Model 110
4.13 Clay Particle Interactions Deduced from Molecular Simulations 114
4.14 Cation Exchange--General Considerations 116
4.15 Theories for Ion Exchange 117
4.16 Soil-Chemical Interactions 118
4.17 Concluding Comments 119
CHAPTER 5 FUNDAMENTAL ENGINEERING CHARACTERIZATION OF SOILS 123
5.1 Introduction 123
5.2 Particle Size Distribution in Granular Soils 126
5.3 Morphological Characterization of Granular Soils 130
5.4 Texture of Granular Soils 135
5.5 Interparticle Friction 137
5.6 Sand Particle Stiffness 146
5.7 Sand Particle Strength 148
5.8 Packing Density of Granular Soils and the Limits 152
5.9 Particle Sizes of Clays and Influences of Exchangeable Cations and pH 155
5.10 Atterberg Limits and Activity of Clays 157
5.11 Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase 161
5.12 Mixed Soils 162
5.13 Effects of Organic Matter 165
5.14 Concluding Comments 165
CHAPTER 6 SOIL FABRIC AND ITS MEASUREMENT 169
6.1 Introduction 169
6.2 Preparing Samples for Direct Observation of Fabric 171
6.3 Direct Observation of Soil Fabric 174
6.4 Image Processing and Analysis 185
6.5 Use of Particulate Mechanics and Numerical Modelling to Study Fabric 190
6.6 Qualitative Assessment of Fabric 191
6.7 Quantitative Assessment of Fabric 198
6.8 Void Fabric of Cohesionless Soils 207
6.9 Concluding Comments 208
Part II Engineering Properties and Behavior 211
CHAPTER 7 EFFECTIVE, INTERGRANULAR, AND TOTAL STRESS 213
7.1 Introduction 213
7.2 Principle of Effective Stress 213
7.3 Force Distributions in a Particulate System 214
7.4 Interparticle Forces in Silt, Sand, and Gravel-Sized Particles 216
7.5 Interparticle Forces in Clay-Sized Particles 225
7.6 Relating Interparticle Forces and Macroscale Stress 228
7.7 Total Potentials and Heads 231
7.8 Water Pressures 232
7.9 Assessment of Intergranular Stress 234
7.10 Assessment of Terzaghi's Effective Stress 236
7.11 Effective Stress in Unsaturated Soils 239
7.12 Concluding Comments 241
CHAPTER 8 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA 243
8.1 Introduction 243
8.2 Flow Laws and Interrelationships 243
8.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 245
8.4 Flows Through Unsaturated Soils 260
8.5 Thermal Conductivity 266
8.6 Electrical Conductivity 269
8.7 Diffusion 274
8.8 Simultaneous Flows of Water, Current, and Salts Through Soil-Coupled Flows 276
8.9 Quantification of Coupled Flows 279
8.10 Electrokinetic Phenomena 284
8.11 Transport Coefficients and the Importance of Coupled Flows 285
8.12 Compatibility--Effects of Chemical Flows on Properties 289
8.13 Electroosmosis 291
8.14 Electroosmosis Efficiency 293
8.15 Consolidation by Electroosmosis 296
8.16 Electrochemical Effects 301
8.17 Electrokinetic Remediation 303
8.18 Self-Potentials 303
8.19 Concluding Comments 305
CHAPTER 9 VOLUME CHANGE BEHAVIOR 307
9.1 Introduction 307
9.2 Factors Controlling Resistance to Volume Change 308
9.3 Fundamental Concepts in Volume Change Behavior of Fine-Grained Soils 310
9.4 Consolidation 318
9.5 Secondary Compression 322
9.6 Evolution of Fabric During Compression 324
9.7 Influence of Structure on Compression Behavior 325
9.8 The Stresses in One-Dimensional Consolidation 327
9.9 Volume Change Behavior Under Constant Stress Ratio Conditions 333
9.10 Swelling and Shrinkage of Fine-Grained Soils 334
9.11 Fundamental Concepts in Volume Change Behavior of Coarse-Grained Soils 336
9.12 Particle Deformations and Breakage During Volume Change 339
9.13 Collapsing Soils 343
9.14 Influences of Mineralogical Detail in Soil Expansion 345
9.15 Osmotic Pressure and Water Adsorption Influences on Compression and Swelling 348
9.16 Summary 353
9.17 Concluding Comments 354
CHAPTER 10 LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR AND STRENGTH 357
10.1 Introduction 357
10.2 General Characteristics of Strength and Deformation 358
10.3 Critical State: A Useful Reference Condition 369
10.4 State Variables to Express the Void Ratio and Confining Pressure Dependency 378
10.5 Effective Strength of Sands 380
10.6 Effective Strength of Clays 385
10.7 Undrained Strength of Clays 388
10.8 Undrained Strength of Sands 392
10.9 True Cohesion 397
10.10 Prefailure Deformation of Soil 399
10.11 Linear Elastic Stiffness 402
10.12 Transition from Elastic to Plastic States 410
10.13 Evolution of Fabric During Soil Deformation 419
10.14 Influence of Fabric and Structure on Deformation and Strength 425
10.15 Intermediate Stress Effects and Stress Anisotropy 436
10.16 Concluding Comments 441
CHAPTER 11 SOME SPECIAL FEATURES OF SOIL BEHAVIOR 445
11.1 Introduction 445
11.2 Sensitivity and Its Causes 445
11.3 Property Interrelationships in Sensitive Clays 456
11.4 Behavior After Peak and Strain Localization 461
11.5 Residual State and Residual Strength 465
11.6 Undrained Cyclic Loading and Liquefaction 469
11.7 Response to Drained Cyclic Loading 480
11.8 Engineering Behavior of Mixed Soils 482
11.9 Elastic Wave Propagation 484
11.10 Fracturing of Soils 487
11.11 Dispersive Clays 491
11.12 Internal Erosion 493
11.13 Slaking 495
11.14 Concluding Comments 495
CHAPTER 12 THERMAL EFFECTS ON SOIL BEHAVIOR 497
12.1 Introduction 497
12.2 Variations of Thermal Properties of Soil With State and Environmental Conditions 499
12.3 Heat Transfer in Individual Particles and at Particle Contacts 503
12.4 Temperature Effect on Volumetric Behavior 505
12.5 Theoretical Analysis of Drained Conditions 510
12.6 Thermal Pressurization in Undrained Conditions 513
12.7 Theoretical Analysis of Undrained Conditions--Thermal Pressurization 515
12.8 Temperature Effect on Mechanical Characteristics 517
12.9 Unsaturated Soil 523
12.10 Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Coupling 524
12.11 Thermally Driven Moisture Flow 525
12.12 An Introduction to Ground Freezing 526
12.13 Ground-Freezing Processes 529
12.14 Frost Heave and Ice Lens Formation 535
12.15 Mechanical Behavior of Frozen Soil 538
12.16 Concluding Comments 543
CHAPTER 13 TIME EFFECTS ON STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION 545
13.1 Introduction 545
13.2 General Characteristics 546
13.3 Fundamental Mechanisms of Time-Dependant Behavior: Rate Process Theory 553
13.4 Bonding, Effective Stresses, and Strength 557
13.5 Shearing Resistance as a Rate Process 562
13.6 Interpreting Soil Behavior Using Rate Process Theory 562
13.7 Rate Effects on Stress-Strain Relationships of Clay 565
13.8 Rate Effects on Stress-Strain Relationships of Sand 570
13.9 Rate Effects on Stiffness and Cyclic Response 572
13.10 Creep 574
13.11 Creep Rupture 586
13.12 Stress Relaxation 592
13.13 Aging 592
13.14 Mechanisms for Soil Property Changes During Sand Aging 599
13.15 Inertia Effects and Rapid Flows 603
13.16 Concluding Comments 604
Questions and Problems 604
References 607
Index 651
