Preface xix
Foreword xxiii
Part I: Natural Oral Care 1
1 Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy: Current and Future Prospects 3
Durgesh Nandini Chauhan, Prabhu Raj Singh, Kamal Shah and Nagendra Singh Chauhan
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Safety of Natural Oral Care 15
1.3 Advantage of Natural Oral Care 15
1.4 Limitations of Natural Oral Care 16
1.5 Future Prospects of Natural Oral Care 16
References 17
2 Herbal Products for Oral Hygiene: An Overview of Their Biological Activities 31
Ummuhan Sebnem Harput
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Oral Hygiene and Current Treatments 33
2.3 Plants Traditionally Used in Oral Hygiene 33
2.4 Clinically Studied Plant Product for Oral Hygiene 35
2.5 In Vitro Studied Herbal Product for Oral Hygiene 37
2.6 Discussion 40
2.7 Conclusion 41
References 41
3 Go Green-Periodontal Care in the Natural Way 45
Siddhartha Varma and Sameer Anil Zope
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Plaque Control 46
3.3 Dant Dhavani (Brushing) 46
3.4 Jivha Lekhana (Tongue Scrapping) 47
3.5 Gandusha (Gargling) or Oil Pulling 48
3.6 Oxidative Stress in Periodontitis 48
3.7 Green Tea 48
3.7.1 Components 48
3.7.2 Beneficial Effects of Various Tea Components 49
3.7.2.1 Antioxidative Effect 49
3.7.3 Role in Managing Periodontitis 49
3.8 Turmeric (Curcumin longa, Haldi) 49
3.8.1 Applications of Turmeric in Dentistry 49
3.9 Amala (Emblica officinalis, Amalaki, Phyllanthus emblica, Indian Gooseberry, Dhatriphala) 50
3.10 Anar/Dalima (Punica granatum) 50
3.11 Launga/Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) 50
3.12 Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) 51
3.13 Amra/Mango (Magnifera indica) 51
3.14 Neem (Azadirachta indica) 51
3.15 Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) 51
3.16 Nilgiri (Eucalyptus globulus) 52
3.17 Tila/Sesame (Sesamum indicum) 52
3.18 Triphala 52
3.19 Tea Tree Oil (Melaleuca Oil) 52
3.20 Rumi Mastagi/Mastic Gum (Pistacia lentiscus) 53
3.21 Wheat Grass 53
3.22 Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) 53
3.23 Licorice Root 53
3.24 Myrrh (Commiphora glileadenis) 54
3.25 Psidium guajava 54
3.26 Ginkbo Biloba 54
3.27 Honey 54
3.28 Other Herbs Which Can Be Potentially Used for Treating Periodontitis 55
3.29 Conclusion 55
References 56
4 Role of Herbal and Natural Products in the Management of Potentially Malignant Oral Disorders 61
P. Kalyana Chakravarthy, Komal Smriti and Sravan Kumar Yeturu
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Oral Submucous Fibrosis (OSMF) 62
4.2.1 Background 62
4.2.2 Beta-Carotene 63
4.2.3 Lycopene 64
4.2.4 Aloe Vera 65
4.2.5 Colchicine 66
4.2.6 Tea Pigments 66
4.2.7 Spirulina 66
4.2.8 Chinese Herbal Medicines 67
4.2.9 Turmeric and Derivatives, Nigella sativa, Ocimum 68
4.2.10 Polyherbal Formulations 68
4.2.11 Ayurvedic Formulations 69
4.2.12 Conclusion 69
4.3 Oral Leukoplakia (OL) 70
4.3.1 Background 70
4.3.2 Green Tea and Extracts 70
4.3.3 Beta-Carotene (ßC) 71
4.3.4 Lycopene 72
4.3.5 Curcumin 72
4.3.6 Miscellaneous 73
4.3.6.1 Alpha-Tocopherol 73
4.3.6.2 Chinese Herbs 73
4.3.6.3 Bowman-Birk Inhibitor Concentrate (BBIC) 73
4.3.7 Conclusion 73
4.4 Oral Lichen Planus (OLP) 74
4.4.1 Conclusion 75
References 75
Part II: Studies of Plants Used in Dental Disease 81
5 Studies on the Anticariogenic Potential of Medicinal Plant Seed and Fruit Extracts 83
Disha M. Patel, Jenabhai B. Chauhan and Kalpesh B. Ishnava
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Materials and Methods 85
5.2.1 Plant Materials 85
5.2.2 Preparation of Plant Seed and Fruit Extracts 85
5.2.3 Cariogenic Bacterial Strains 85
5.2.4 Preparation of Inoculums 86
5.2.5 Anticariogenic Activity Screening of Plant Extracts 87
5.2.5.1 Agar Well Diffusion Assay 87
5.2.5.2 Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) 87
5.2.6 Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis 87
5.2.7 Analytical Thin Layer Chromatography 87
5.2.8 TLC-Bioautography 88
5.3 Result and Discussion 88
5.3.1 MIC Value of Effective Plant Extracts 91
5.3.2 Phytochemical Screening and Bioautography 92
5.4 Conclusion 94
Acknowledgments 95
References 95
6 Cytotoxic and Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Turmeric and Aloe Vera in a Gingivitis Model 97
Karen Esperanza Almanza-Aranda, Miguel Aranda-Fonseca, Gabriela Velazquez-Plascencia and Rene Garcia-Contreras
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Gingivitis and Periodontitis 98
6.3 Aloe Vera 99
6.3.1 Aloe Vera for Gingivitis and Periodontitis 100
6.3.2 Aloe Vera: Other Oral Applications 100
6.4 Turmeric 100
6.4.1 Turmeric for Gingivitis and Periodontitis 101
6.4.2 Turmeric: Other Oral Applications 101
6.5 Methodology 102
6.5.1 Materials and Methods 102
6.5.1.1 Authorization 102
6.5.1.2 Cell Culture 102
6.5.1.3 Cell Subculture 102
6.5.1.4 Cytotoxicity Test 103
6.5.1.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity in a Gingivitis Model 103
6.5.1.6 Statistical Analysis 104
6.5.2 Results 104
6.5.2.1 Cytotoxicity 104
6.5.2.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity in a Gingivitis Model 105
6.5.3 Discussion 105
6.5.3.1 Cytotoxicity 105
6.5.3.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 106
6.6 Perspectives for the Future 107
6.7 Conclusions 107
References 107
7 Effects of Bauhinia forficata Link in Reducing Streptococcus mutans Biofilm on Teeth 111
Julio Cesar C. Ferreira-Filho, Mariana Leonel Martins, Andressa Temperini de Oliveira Marre, Juliana Soares de Sá Almeida, Leandro de Araújo Lobo, Adriano Gomes Cruz, Marlon Máximo de Andrade, Thiago Isidro Vieira, Maria Teresa Villela Romanos, Lucianne Cople Maia, Ana Maria Gondim Valença and Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves
7.1 Introduction 112
7.2 Materials and Methods 112
7.2.1 Recognition, Production, and Chemical Characterization of Ethanolic Tincture From B. forficata L. Leaves 112
7.2.2 Microbial Strains and Preparation of Inoculum 113
7.2.3 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) 113
7.2.4 Kill-Kinetic Assay 113
7.2.5 Cytotoxic Potential 114
7.2.6 Tooth Selection and Preparation for Microbiologic Assay Using an S. mutans Biofilm 114
7.2.7 Statistical Analysis 115
7.3 Results and Discussion 115
7.4 Final Considerations 118
Acknowledgments 118
References 119
8 Antimicrobial Effect of a Cardamom Ethanolic Extract on Oral Biofilm: An Ex Vivo Study 121
Marina Fernandes Binimeliz, Mariana Leonel Martins, Julio Cesar Campos Ferreira Filho, Lucio Mendes Cabral, Adriano Gomes da Cruz, Lucianne Cople Maia and Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves
8.1 Introduction 121
8.2 Materials and Methods 122
8.2.1 Cardamom Extract Production 122
8.2.2 Physical Analyses 123
8.2.3 Bacterial Strains and Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration 123
8.2.4 Salivary Collection for Biofilm Formation (Ex Vivo Experiment) 124
8.2.5 Biofilm Formation and Treatment 124
8.2.6 Statistical Analyses 127
8.3 Results and Discussion 127
8.4 Final Considerations 129
Acknowledgment 129
References 129
9 Effect of Punica granatum Peel Extract on Growth of Candida albicans in Oral Mucosa of Diabetic Male Rats 133
Maryam Eidi and Fatemeh Noorbakhsh
9.1 Introduction 133
9.2 Materials and Methods 134
9.2.1 Hydro-Methanolic Extract 134
9.2.2 Candida albicans Inoculation 134
9.2.3 Animal 134
9.2.4 Statistical Analysis 135
9.3 Results and Discussion 135
9.4 Conclusion 136
Acknowledgment 136
References 137
Part III: Applications of Natural Products in Oral Care 139
10 Effect of Oil Pulling on Oral Health 141
Sameer Anil Zope and Siddhartha Varma
10.1 Introduction 141
10.2 What is Oil Pulling (Snaihik Gandoosh)? 142
10.3 How Does Oil Pulling Work? 143
10.4 Composition and Various Activities of Most Commonly Used Oils for Oil Pulling 143
10.4.1 Sesame Oil 143
10.4.1.1 Antioxidant Activity 143
10.4.1.2 Antimicrobial Activity 144
10.4.2 Coconut Oil 145
10.4.2.1 Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Activity 145
10.4.2.2 Antinociceptive, Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Anti-Ulcer Activity 145
10.5 Procedure of Oil Pulling 146
10.6 Effects of Oil Pulling on Oral Health 146
10.6.1 Dental Caries 146
10.6.2 Plaque-Induced Gingivitis 147
10.6.3 Halitosis 148
10.6.4 Oral Thrush 149
10.6.5 Xerostomia and Burning Mouth Syndrome 149
10.7 Drawbacks of Oil Pulling 150
References 150
11 Role of Proteolytic Enzymes in Dental Care 153
P. Kalyana Chakravarthy and Sravan Kumar Yeturu
11.1 Introduction 153
11.2 Role of Proteolytic Enzymes in Oral Surgery 154
11.2.1 Post-Extraction Management 154
11.2.2 Post-Surgical Facial Ecchymosis and or Edema 155
11.2.3 Enhanced the Action of Antibiotics 156
11.2.4 Effect of Bromelain on Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis 156
11.3 Role of Proteolytic Enzymes in Cancer and Oral Mucositis 156
11.3.1 Cancer 156
11.3.2 Management in Oral Mucositis 157
11.4 Osteoarthritis 157
11.5 Anti-Microbial Action 158
11.6 Treatment of Dental Carious Lesions 159
11.6.1 Laboratory Studies 159
11.6.2 Clinical Studies 160
11.7 Improvement in Bonding of Orthodontics Brackets 161
11.8 Role on Biofilm Control (Plaque, Gingivitis, and Oral Malodor) 163
11.9 Extrinsic Stain Removal on the Teeth 164
11.10 Role in Replantation of the Avulsed Tooth 165
11.11 Effect of Bromelain on Immunogenicity 165
11.12 Other Possible Applications and Scope for Future Research 165
References 165
12 The Effect of Probiotic on Oral Health 171
Patricia Nadelman, Marcela Baraúna Magno, Mariana Farias da Cruz, Adriano Gomes da Cruz, Matheus Melo Pithon, Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves and Lucianne Cople Maia
12.1 Introduction 171
12.2 Overview of Oral Communities and Probiotic-Based Therapy to Oral Dysbiosis 172
12.3 Probiotics Mechanisms of Action 175
12.4 Dental Caries 176
12.4.1 Definition and Etiopathology 176
12.4.2 Probiotics and Dental Caries 179
12.4.3 Probiotic-Contained Dairy Products and Dental Caries 179
12.4.4 Probiotic Powder and Dental Caries 180
12.4.5 Probiotic Tablets and Lozenges and Dental Caries 180
12.4.6 Probiotic Mouthwashes and Dental Caries 181
12.5 Periodontal Disease 181
12.5.1 Definition and Etiopathology 181
12.5.2 Probiotics and Periodontal Diseases 182
12.6 Oral Candidiasis 183
12.6.1 Definition and Etiopathology 183
12.6.2 Probiotics and Oral Candidiasis 184
12.7 Halitosis 185
12.7.1 Definition and Etiopathology 185
12.7.2 Probiotics and Halitosis 185
12.8 Conclusion 186
Acknowledgments 186
References 186
13 Charcoal in Dentistry 197
Abhilasha Thakur, Aditya Ganeshpurkar and Anupam Jaiswal
13.1 Introduction 197
13.2 Charcoal Production Methods 199
13.2.1 The Traditional Method 199
13.2.2 The Modern Methods 199
13.3 Uses of Charcoal 200
13.3.1 Medicinal Uses 200
13.3.2 Non-Medicinal Uses 201
13.4 Charcoal Containing Oral and Dental Care Products 201
13.5 Benefits of Using Charcoal Containing Oral and Dental Care Products 204
13.5.1 Removes Stains and Whitens Teeth 204
13.5.2 Removes Acidic Plaque 204
13.5.3 Gives Fresh Breath and Improves Halitosis 204
13.5.4 Remineralize Teeth 205
13.5.5 Helps Overall Dental Health 205
13.5.6 Protects From Infection 205
13.5.7 Cost Effective for Regular Basis Use 205
13.6 Precautions to be Taken While Using Charcoal Containing Oral and Dental Care Products 206
13.7 Conclusion 207
References 207
14 Propolis Benefits in Oral Health 211
Mariana Leonel Martins, Karla Lorene de França Leite, Yuri Wanderley Cavalcanti, Lucianne Cople Maia and Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves
14.1 Introduction 211
14.2 Types of Propolis 213
14.2.1 Brown Propolis 213
14.2.2 Green Propolis 214
14.2.3 Red Propolis 214
14.3 Biological Properties of Propolis 215
14.3.1 Oral Antibacterial Activity 216
14.3.2 Oral Antifungal Activity 219
14.4 Other Biological Properties of Propolis 220
14.4.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 220
14.4.2 Antioxidant Activity 221
14.4.3 Anticancer Activity 221
14.5 Benefits for Oral Health and Applications in Dentistry 221
14.6 Final Considerations 222
Acknowledgment 223
References 223
15 Grape Seed Extract in Dental Therapy 229
Anusuya V, Ashok Kumar Jena and Jitendra Sharan
15.1 Introduction 229
15.2 Part I: Basics About Grape Seed Extracts 230
15.2.1 Components of Grape Seed Extracts 230
15.2.2 Chemical Structure 231
15.2.3 Types of GSEs 232
15.2.4 Methods of Separation 232
15.2.5 Factors Influencing the Quality and Quantity of Polyphenols in the GSEs 234
15.2.6 Physical Properties of Polyphenols 235
15.2.7 Biochemical Properties (Biological and Pharmacological) 236
15.3 Part II: Biological Applications in Dentistry 240
15.3.1 GSEs in Dental Caries 240
15.3.2 Anti-Erosive Agent (Prevention of Enamel erosion) 242
15.3.3 Antiplaque Effect 243
15.3.4 Antibacterial Agent 244
15.3.5 Biomodifier 245
15.3.6 GSEs as a Remineralizing Agent-Existing Dilemma 247
15.4 GSEs in Restorative Dentistry 248
15.4.1 GSE as Cross-Linking Agent 248
15.4.2 GSE in Bonding 249
15.5 GSEs in Endodontic Treatment 250
15.5.1 Endodontic Irrigants 250
15.5.2 Post Endodontic Restorations 251
15.6 GSEs in Periodontics 251
15.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Action in Periodontitis 252
15.6.2 Anti-Oxidative Action in Periodontitis 252
15.6.3 Antibacterial Action Against Periodontal Pathogens 253
15.6.4 Antimicrobial Activity in Peri-Implantitis 253
15.7 GSEs in Oral Cancer 254
15.8 Conclusion 254
References 255
16 Ocimum Sanctum L: Promising Agent for Oral Health Care Management 259
Trinette Fernandes, Anisha D'souza and Sujata P. Sawarkar
16.1 Introduction 259
16.2 History of Ocimum sanctum 260
16.3 Chemical Constituents of Ocimum sanctum 260
16.4 Therapeutic Significance of Ocimum in Dental Health and Preventive Care Management 262
16.5 Novel Drug Delivery Formulations and Its Application in Dentistry 264
16.5.1 Nanofibers 264
16.5.2 ß-Cyclodextrin Complexes 264
16.5.3 Nanoparticles of Biocompatible Ocimum sanctum-Coated Silver Nanoparticles 264
16.6 Conclusion 265
References 266
17 Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.): A Natural Gift to Humans for Dental Ministrations 271
Navneet Kishore and Akhilesh Kumar Verma
17.1 Introduction 271
17.2 Traditional Usage and Ethnopharmacological Relevance 272
17.3 Pharmacological Properties of Coconut 273
17.4 Role of Coconut Tree in Dental Ministrations 274
17.5 Exemplary Potential of Coconut Water in Dentistry 275
17.6 Other Significance of Coconut 276
17.6.1 Economic Value of Coconut Leaves 276
17.6.2 Use of Coconut Heart 277
17.6.3 Significance of Spathe and Inflorescence 277
17.6.4 Potential of Coconut Fruits 277
17.6.5 Usage of Coconut Milk 277
17.6.6 Importance of Coconut Shell 277
17.6.7 Commercial Usage of Husk Fibers 278
17.6.8 Economic Importance of Coconut Stems 278
17.6.9 Convention of Coconut Roots 278
17.7 Active Constituent Identified from Coconut 278
17.8 Future Prospective 279
17.9 Conclusions 280
Acknowledgments 280
References 281
18 Salvadora persica L. (Miswak): An Effective Folklore Toothbrush 285
Sujata P. Sawarkar, Anisha D'souza and Trinette Fernandes
18.1 Introduction 285
18.2 History 286
18.3 Chemical Constituents 286
18.4 Extraction, Isolation, Identification of Chemical Constituents 287
18.5 Pharmacology-Therapeutic Activity of Salvadora persica L. 287
18.5.1 Theories for Miswak Activities 287
18.5.2 Antibacterial and Antifungal 288
18.5.3 Anti-Viral Effect 290
18.5.4 Anti-Cariogenic Effect 290
18.5.5 Antiplaque Effect 290
18.5.6 Antiperiodontitis Effect 290
18.5.7 Whitening Effect 291
18.6 Conclusion 292
References 292
19 Triphala and Oral Health 297
Kamal Shigli, Sushma S Nayak, Mrinal Shete, Vasanti Lagali Jirge and Veerendra Nanjwade
19.1 Introduction 297
19.2 Taxonomical Classification 298
19.3 Chief Phytoconstituents 298
19.4 Role of Triphala in Dentistry 300
19.4.1 Anti-Caries Activity 300
19.4.2 Triphala as a Root Canal Irrigant 300
19.4.3 Anti-Microbial and Anti-Oxidant Effect of Triphala 306
19.4.4 Role of Triphala in Periodontal Diseases 306
19.4.5 Triphala as a Mouth Rinse 306
19.4.6 Anti-Candida Activity of Triphala 306
19.4.7 Anti-Collagenase Activity of Triphala 306
19.5 Pharmacological Activities of Triphala and Future Research 307
19.5.1 Anticancer and Antioxidant Activity of Triphala 307
19.5.2 Wound Healing Properties 307
19.5.3 Antibacterial Activity of Triphala 307
19.5.4 Anti-Diabetic Effect 307
19.5.5 Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Antipyretic Effect 307
19.5.6 Immunomodulatory Effect 308
19.6 Public Health Importance 308
19.7 Formulation Using Triphala 308
19.6 Conclusion 308
References 309
20 Azadirachta indica (Neem): An Ancient Indian Boon to the Contemporary World of Dentistry 313
Sri Chandana Tanguturi, Sumanth Gunupati and Sreenivas Nagarakanti
20.1 Introduction 313
20.2 Vital Bioactive Compounds of Neem 314
20.2.1 Nimbidin 314
20.2.2 Azadirachtin 315
20.2.3 Nimbolide 315
20.2.4 Gedunin 315
20.2.5 Mahmoodin 315
20.2.6 Tannins 315
20.2.7 Diterpenoids 315
20.3 How to Distinguish Azadirachta Indica (Neem) from its Common Adulterant Melia Azedarach 316
20.4 Therapeutic Applications of Neem 316
20.4.1 Neem as an Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic Agent 317
20.4.2 Antioxidant Activity 317
20.4.3 Anticancerous Activity 317
20.4.4 Antimicrobial Activity 318
20.4.4.1 Antibacterial Activity 318
20.4.4.2 Antiviral Activity 318
20.4.4.3 Antifungal Activity 318
20.4.4.4 Antimalarial Activity 318
20.4.5 Wound Healing Effect 318
20.5 Applications of Neem in Dentistry 318
20.5.1 Neem in Treatment of Periodontal Diseases 319
20.5.2 Role of Neem in Endodontics 319
20.5.3 Potent Role of Neem in Preventive Dentistry 320
20.5.3.1 Application in Dental Erosion Therapy 320
20.5.3.2 Anti-Microbial Activity 320
20.5.3.3 Anticaries Activity of Neem 320
20.5.3.4 Anti-Candidiasis Property 321
20.5.3.5 Anti-Cancer Property 321
20.6 Literature Supporting the Use of Neem in Dentistry 321
20.7 Toxicity and Safety 322
20.8 Contamination and Adulteration 322
20.9 Drug Interactions 322
20.10 Neem's Prospects in Dentistry 323
20.11 Action Points and Recommendations for Health Care Professionals 323
20.12 Conclusion 323
References 324
21 Ginger in Oral Care 329
Aditya Ganeshpurkar, Abhilasha Thakur and Anupam Jaiswal
21.1 Introduction 329
21.2 Description 330
21.3 Macroscopic Characteristics 330
21.4 Pharmacognostic Standards 330
21.5 Nutrient Composition 331
21.6 Pharmacological and Medicinal Effects 331
21.6.1 Oral Analgesic Effect 331
21.6.2 Antimicrobial Effect 332
21.6.3 Anti-Carries Activity 333
21.6.4 Anti-Decay Effect 333
21.6.5 Healing Effect in Root Canal Therapy 334
21.6.6 Anti-Xerostomia Effect 334
21.6.7 Anti-Pyorrhea Effect 335
21.6.8 Anti-Thrush Effect 335
21.6.9 Anti-Herpes Effect 336
21.6.10 Tooth Polishing 336
21.6.11 Mouth Deodorizing Effect 336
21.6.12 Anticancer Effect 338
21.6.13 Protection Against Aphthous Stomatitis 338
21.6.14 Effect on Dentin Hardness 338
21.7 Pharmacokinetics 339
21.8 Toxicological Studies 339
21.9 Conclusion 339
References 340
22 Effectiveness of Allium sativum on Bacterial Oral Infection 345
Vesna Karic, Anupam Jaiswal, Heidi Abrahamse, Abhilasha Thakur and Aditya Ganeshpurkar
22.1 Introduction 345
22.1.1 History and Origin of Garlic 347
22.1.2 Medicinal Values of Garlic 348
22.2 Types of Allium sativum 349
22.2.1 Allium sativum Ophisocorodon/Hard-Necked Garlic 349
22.2.2 Allium sativum Sativum/Soft-Necked Garlic 349
22.3 Chemical Constituents 351
22.3.1 Allicin 351
22.3.2 Ajoenes 351
22.3.3 Alliin 351
22.4 Dental Infections and Epidemiology 352
22.5 Dental Infection and Antibiotic Resistance 352
22.6 The Antibacterial Application of Garlic in Dentistry 354
22.6.1 The Use of Garlic to Treat Oral Infections 354
22.6.1.1 Periodontitis 354
22.6.1.2 Pediatric Endodontitis 356
22.6.1.3 Dental Caries 357
22.6.1.4 Denture Stomatitis 358
22.6.1.5 Protection Against Fibrosis 359
22.6.1.6 Garlic Chewing Gum 359
22.6.1.7 Garlic Used as a Breath-Freshening Agent 359
22.7 Additional Use of Garlic in Dentistry-Oral Cancer 360
22.7.1 High Blood Pressure 361
22.7.2 Skin Disorders 362
22.7.3 Anti-Allergic 362
22.7.4 Anti-Obesity 362
22.8 Garlic Mechanism of Action 362
22.9 Conclusions and Recommendations 362
Acknowledgments 364
References 364
Part IV: Ethnobotany and Ethanopharmacology 371
23 Curative Plants Worn in the Healing of Mouth Evils 373
P. Shivakumar Singh, Pindi Pavan Kumar and D. Srinivasulu
23.1 Introduction 373
23.2 Materials and Methods 374
23.3 Results and Discussion 375
23.4 Conclusion 381
Acknowledgment 381
References 381
24 Ethnopharmacological Applications of Chewing Sticks on Oral Health Care 383
E. A. Akaji and U. Otakhoigbogie
24.1 Introduction 383
24.1.1 Background 383
24.1.2 Historical Perspectives 384
24.1.3 Sources and Types of Chewing Sticks 384
24.2 Applications of Chewing Sticks in Oral Health Care 384
24.2.1 Chewing Sticks for Oral Hygiene 384
24.2.2 Ethnopharmacological Applications of Chewing Sticks in Oral Health 387
24.2.2.1 Dental Caries (Tooth Decay) 387
24.2.2.2 Periodontal Disease 389
24.2.2.3 Oral Candidiasis 389
24.2.2.4 Oral Ulcers and Halitosis 390
24.2.2.5 Other Oral Conditions 390
24.3 Conclusions 390
References 391
25 Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacology for Dental Diseases in Indochina 393
Viroj Wiwanitkit
25.1 Introduction 393
25.2 Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacology in Indochina 394
25.3 Locally Available Naturally Derived Dental Products in Indochina 396
25.4 Ethnopharmacology for Dental Diseases in Indochina 397
25.5 Ethnomedicine for Dental Diseases in Indochina 402
25.6 Future Trend of Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacology for Dental Diseases in Indochina 403
25.7 Conclusion 404
References 404
26 Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in Anti-Halitosis 407
P. Shivakumar Singh, Pindi Pavan Kumar and D. Srinivasulu
26.1 Introduction 407
26.2 Materials and Methods 408
26.3 Results and Discussion 409
26.4 Conclusion 412
Acknowledgment 413
References 413
Index 415
