List of Figures, Tables, and Sidebars xxiii
Introduction: A Little Knowledge Is Dangerous 1
Why Test? 1
Why Read This Book? 2
A Confusing State of Affairs 3
Misleading Familiarity 3
Inaccessible Technology 4
Procedural Confusion 4
Testing and Kirkpatrick's Levels of Evaluation 5
Certification in the Corporate World 7
Corporate Testing Enters the New Millennium 10
What Is to Come. . . 11
Part I: Background: The Fundamentals 13
1 Test Theory 15
What Is Testing? 15
What Does a Test Score Mean? 17
Reliability and Validity: A Primer 18
Reliability 18
Equivalence Reliability 19
Test-Retest Reliability 19
Inter-Rater Reliability 19
Validity 20
Face Validity 23
Context Validity 23
Concurrent Validity 23
Predictive Validity 24
Concluding Comment 24
2 Types of Tests 25
Criterion-Referenced Versus Norm-Referenced Tests 25
Frequency Distributions 25
Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretation 28
Six Purposes for Tests in Training Settings 30
Three Methods of Test Construction (One of Which You Should Never Use) 32
Topic-Based Test Construction 32
Statistically Based Test Construction 33
Objectives-Based Test Construction 34
Part II: Overview: The CRTD Model and Process 37
3 The CRTD Model and Process 39
Relationship to the Instructional Design Process 39
The CRTD Process 43
Plan Documentation 44
Analyze Job Content 44
Establish Content Validity of Objectives 46
Create Items 46
Create Cognitive Items 46
Create Rating Instruments 47
Establish Content Validity of Items and Instruments 47
Conduct Initial Test Pilot 47
Perform Item Analysis 48
Difficulty Index 48
Distractor Pattern 48
Point-Biserial 48
Create Parallel Forms or Item Banks 49
Establish Cut-Off Scores 49
Informed Judgment 50
Angoff 50
Contrasting Groups 50
Determine Reliability 50
Determine Reliability of Cognitive Tests 50
Equivalence Reliability 51
Test-Retest Reliability 51
Determine Reliability of Performance Tests 52
Report Scores 52
Summary 53
Part III: The CRTD Process: Planning and Creating the Test 55
4 Plan Documentation 57
Why Document? 57
What to Document 63
The Documentation 64
5 Analyze Job Content 75
Job Analysis 75
Job Analysis Models 77
Summary of the Job Analysis Process 78
DACUM 79
Hierarchies 87
Hierarchical Analysis of Tasks 87
Matching the Hierarchy to the Type of Test 88
Prerequisite Test 89
Entry Test 89
Diagnostic Test 89
Posttest 89
Equivalency Test 90
Certification Test 90
Using Learning Task Analysis to Validate a Hierarchy 91
Bloom's Original Taxonomy 91
Knowledge Level 92
Comprehension Level 93
Application Level 93
Analysis Level 93
Synthesis Level 93
Evaluation Level 94
Using Bloom's Original Taxonomy to Validate a Hierarchy 94
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy 95
Gagné's Learned Capabilities 96
Intellectual Skills 96
Cognitive Strategies 97
Verbal Information 97
Motor Skill 97
Attitudes 97
Using Gagné's Intellectual Skills to Validate a Hierarchy 97
Merrill's Component Design Theory 98
The Task Dimension 99
Types of Learning 99
Using Merrill's Component Design Theory to Validate a Hierarchy 99
Data-Based Methods for Hierarchy Validation 100
Who Killed Cock Robin? 102
6 Content Validity of Objectives 105
Overview of the Process 105
The Role of Objectives in Item Writing 106
Characteristics of Good Objectives 107
Behavior Component 107
Conditions Component 108
Standards Component 108
A Word from the Legal Department About Objectives 109
The Certification Suite 109
Certification Levels in the Suite 110
Level A-Realworld 110
Level B-High-Fidelity Simulation 111
Level C-Scenarious 111
Quasi-Certification 112
Level D-Memorization 112
Level E-Attendance 112
Level F-Affiliation 113
How to Use the Certification Suite 113
Finding a Common Understanding 113
Making a Professional Decision 114
The correct level to match the job 114
The operationally correct level 114
The consequences of lower fidelity 115
Converting Job-Task Statements to Objectives 116
In Conclusion 119
7 Create Cognitive Items 121
What Are Cognitive Items? 121
Classification Schemes for Objectives 122
Bloom's Cognitive Classifications 123
Types of Test Items 129
Newer Computer-Based Item Types 129
The Six Most Common Item Types 130
True/False Items 131
Matching Items 132
Multiple-Choice Items 132
Fill-In Items 147
Short Answer Items 147
Essay Items 148
The Key to Writing Items That Match Jobs 149
The Single Most Useful Improvement You Can Make in Test Development 149
Intensional Versus Extensional Items 150
Show Versus Tell 152
The Certification Suite 155
Guidelines for Writing Test Items 158
Guidelines for Writing the Most Common Item Types 159
How Many Items Should Be on a Test? 166
Test Reliability and Test Length 166
Criticality of Decisions and Test Length 167
Resources and Test Length 168
Domain Size of Objectives and Test Length 168
Homogeneity of Objectives and Test Length 169
Research on Test Length 170
Summary of Determinants of Test Length 170
A Cookbook for the SME 172
Deciding Among Scoring Systems 174
Hand Scoring 175
Optical Scanning 175
Computer-Based Testing 176
Computerized Adaptive Testing 180
8 Create Rating Instruments 183
What Are Performance Tests? 183
Product Versus Process in Performance Testing 187
Four Types of Rating Scales for Use in Performance Tests (Two of Which You Should Never Use) 187
Numerical Scales 188
Descriptive Scales 188
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales 188
Checklists 190
Open Skill Testing 192
9 Establish Content Validity of Items and Instruments 195
The Process 195
Establishing Content Validity-The 196
Single Most Important Step Face Validity 196
Content Validity 197
Two Other Types of Validity 202
Concurrent Validity 202
Predictive Validity 208
Summary Comment About Validity 209
10 Initial Test Pilot 211
Why Pilot a Test? 211
Six Steps in the Pilot Process 212
Determine the Sample 212
Orient the Participants 213
Give the Test 214
Analyze the Test 214
Interview the Test-Takers 215
Synthesize the Results 216
Preparing to Collect Pilot Test Data 217
Before You Administer the Test 217
Sequencing Test Items 217
Test Directions 218
Test Readability Levels 219
Lexile Measure 220
Formatting the Test 220
Setting Time Limits-Power, Speed, and Organizational Culture 221
When You Administer the Test 222
Physical Factors 222
Psychological Factors 222
Giving and Monitoring the Test 223
Special Considerations for Performance Tests 225
Honesty and Integrity in Testing 231
Security During the Training-Testing Sequence 234
Organization-Wide Policies Regarding Test Security 236
11 Statistical Pilot 241
Standard Deviation and Test Distributions 241
The Meaning of Standard Deviation 241
The Five Most Common Test Distributions 244
Problems with Standard Deviations and Mastery Distributions 247
Item Statistics and Item Analysis 248
Item Statistics 248
Difficulty Index 248
P-Value 249
Distractor Pattern 249
Point-Biserial Correlation 250
Item Analysis for Criterion-Referenced Tests 251
The Upper-Lower Index 253
Phi 255
Choosing Item Statistics and Item Analysis Techniques 255
Garbage In-Garbage Out 257
12 Parallel Forms 259
Paper-and-Pencil Tests 260
Computerized Item Banks 262
Reusable Learning Objects 264
13 Cut-Off Scores 265
Determining the Standard for Mastery 265
The Outcomes of a Criterion-Referenced Test 266
The Necessity of Human Judgment in Setting a Cut-Off Score 267
Consequences of Misclassification 267
Stakeholders 268
Revisability 268
Performance Data 268
Three Procedures for Setting the Cut-Off Score 269
The Issue of Substitutability 269
Informed Judgment 270
A Conjectural Approach, the Angoff Method 272
Contrasting Groups Method 278
Borderline Decisions 282
The Meaning of Standard Error of Measurement 282
Reducing Misclassification Errors at the Borderline 284
Problems with Correction-for-Guessing 285
The Problem of the Saltatory Cut-Off Score 287
14 Reliability of Cognitive Tests 289
The Concepts of Reliability, Validity, and Correlation 289
Correlation 290
Types of Reliability 293
Single-Test-Administration Reliability Techniques 294
Internal Consistency 294
Squared-Error Loss 296
Threshold-Loss 296
Calculating Reliability for Single-Test Administration Techniques 297
Livingston's Coefficient kappa (¿ 2) 297
The Index Sc 297
Outcomes of Using the Single-Test- Administration Reliability Techniques 298
Two-Test-Administration Reliability Techniques 299
Equivalence Reliability 299
Test-Retest Reliability 300
Calculating Reliability for Two-Test Administration Techniques 301
The Phi Coefficient 302
Description of Phi 302
Calculating Phi 302
How High Should Phi Be? 304
The Agreement Coefficient 306
Description of the Agreement Coefficient 306
Calculating the Agreement Coefficient 307
How High Should the Agreement Coefficient Be? 308
The Kappa Coefficient 308
Description of Kappa 308
Calculating the Kappa Coefficient 309
How High Should the Kappa Coefficient Be? 311
Comparison of ¿, ¿0, and ¿ 313
The Logistics of Establishing Test Reliability 314
Choosing Items 314
Sample Test-Takers 315
Testing Conditions 316
Recommendations for Choosing a Reliability Technique 316
Summary Comments 317
15 Reliability of Performance Tests 319
Reliability and Validity of Performance Tests 319
Types of Rating Errors 320
Error of Standards 320
Halo Error 321
Logic Error 321
Similarity Error 321
Central Tendency Error 321
Leniency Error 322
Inter-Rater Reliability 322
Calculating and Interpreting Kappa (¿) 323
Calculating and Interpreting Phi (¿) 335
Repeated Performance and Consecutive Success 344
Procedures for Training Raters 347
What If a Rater Passes Everyone Regardless of Performance? 349
What Should You Do? 352
What If You Get a High Percentage of Agreement Among Raters But a Negative Phi Coefficient? 353
16 Report Scores 357
CRT Versus NRT Reporting 358
Summing Subscores 358
What Should You Report to a Manager? 361
Is There a Legal Reason to Archive the Tests? 362
A Final Thought About Testing and Teaching 362
Part IV: Legal Issues in Criterion-Referenced Testing 365
17 Criterion-Referenced Testing and Employment Selection Laws 367
What Do We Mean by Employment Selection Laws? 368
Who May Bring a Claim? 368
A Short History of the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures 370
Purpose and Scope 371
Legal Challenges to Testing and the Uniform Guidelines 373
Reasonable Reconsideration 376
In Conclusion 376
Balancing CRTs with Employment Discrimination Laws 376
Watch Out for Blanket Exclusions in the Name of Business Necessity 378
Adverse Impact, the Bottom Line, and Affirmative Action 380
Adverse Impact 380
The Bottom Line 383
Affirmative Action 385
Record-Keeping of Adverse Impact and Job-Relatedness of Tests 387
Accommodating Test-Takers with Special Needs 387
Testing, Assessment, and Evaluation for Disabled Candidates 390
Test Validation Criteria: General Guidelines 394
Test Validation: A Step-by-Step Guide 397
1. Obtain Professional Guidance 397
2. Select a Legally Acceptable Validation Strategy for Your Particular Test 397
3. Understand and Employ Standards for Content-Valid Tests 398
4. Evaluate the Overall Test Circumstances to Assure Equality of Opportunity 399
Keys to Maintaining Effective and Legally Defensible Documentation 400
Why Document? 400
What Is Documentation? 401
Why Is Documentation an Ally in Defending Against Claims? 401
How Is Documentation Used? 402
Compliance Documentation 402
Documentation to Avoid Regulatory Penalties or Lawsuits 404
Use of Documentation in Court 404
Documentation to Refresh Memory 404
Documentation to Attack Credibility 404
Disclosure and Production of Documentation 405
Pay Attention to Document Retention Policies and Protocols 407
Use Effective Word Management in Your Documentation 409
Use Objective Terms to Describe Events and Compliance 412
Avoid Inflammatory and Off-the-Cuff Commentary 412
Develop and Enforce Effective Document Retention Policies 413
Make Sure Your Documentation Is Complete 414
Make Sure Your Documentation Is Capable of "Authentication" 415
In Conclusion 415
Is Your Criterion-Referenced Testing Legally Defensible? A Checklist 416
A Final Thought 419
Epilogue: CRTD as Organizational Transformation 421
References 425
Index 433
About the Authors 453
