About the Editor xii
Contributors xiii
Series preface xv
Preface xvi
1 Drugs of abuse 1
Niamh Nic Daéid
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Law and legislation 2
1.3 Sampling 4
1.3.1 Random sampling and representative sampling 6
1.3.2 Arbitrary sampling 7
1.3.3 Statistical sampling methods 8
1.4 Specific drug types 9
1.4.1 Cannabis 9
1.4.2 Heroin 14
1.4.3 Cocaine 22
1.4.4 Amphetamine¿type stimulants 27
1.4.5 New psychoactive substances 33
1.5 Conclusions 36
Acknowledgements 36
References 36
2 Textiles 40
Max Houck
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 A science of reconstruction 40
2.2.1 Classification 41
2.2.2 Comparison 42
2.2.3 Transfer and persistence 43
2.3 Textiles 43
2.3.1 Information 44
2.3.2 Morphology 45
2.4 Natural fibers 48
2.4.1 Animal fibers 48
2.4.2 Plant fibers 51
2.5 Manufactured fibers 52
2.6 Yarns and fabrics 55
2.6.1 Fabric construction 56
2.6.2 Finishes 59
2.7 Fiber types 59
2.7.1 Acetate 59
2.7.2 Acrylic 59
2.7.3 Aramids 60
2.7.4 Modacrylic 60
2.7.5 Nylon 61
2.7.6 Olefins (polypropylene and polyethylene) 61
2.7.7 Polyester 62
2.7.8 Rayon 62
2.7.9 Spandex 65
2.7.10 Triacetate 66
2.7.11 Bicomponent fibers 66
2.8 Chemistry 67
2.8.1 General analysis 67
2.8.2 Instrumental analysis 68
2.8.3 Color 69
2.8.4 Raman spectroscopy 70
2.8.5 Interpretation 71
2.9 The future 72
References 72
3 Paint and coatings examination 75
Paul Kirkbride
3.1 Introduction 75
3.2 Paint chemistry 76
3.2.1 Binders 76
3.2.2 Dyes and pigments 86
3.2.3 Additives 89
3.3 Automotive paint application 91
3.4 Forensic examination of paint 92
3.4.1 General considerations 92
3.4.2 Microscopy 95
3.4.3 Vibrational spectrometry 96
3.4.4 SEM¿EDX and XRF 106
3.4.5 Pyrolytic techniques 111
3.4.6 Color analysis 116
3.5 Paint evidence evaluation and expert opinion 120
References 128
4 Forensic fire debris analysis 135
Reta Newman
4.1 Introduction 135
4.2 Process overview 135
4.3 Sample collection 136
4.4 Ignitable liquid classification 137
4.5 Petroleum¿based ignitable liquids 144
4.6 Non¿petroleum¿based ignitable liquids 160
4.7 Sample preparation 161
4.8 Sample analysis and data interpretation 166
4.9 Summary 172
References 173
5 Explosives 175
John Goodpaster
5.1 The nature of an explosion 175
5.1.1 Types of explosions 175
5.1.2 Explosive effects 176
5.2 Physical and chemical properties of explosives 180
5.2.1 Low explosives 181
5.2.2 High explosives 186
5.3 Protocols for the forensic examination of explosives and explosive devices 192
5.3.1 Recognition of evidence 192
5.3.2 Portable technology and on¿scene analysis 193
5.3.3 In the laboratory 194
5.4 Chemical analysis of explosives 200
5.4.1 Consensus standards (TWGFEX) 201
5.4.2 Chemical tests 203
5.4.3 X¿ray techniques 204
5.4.4 Spectroscopy 207
5.4.5 Separations 212
5.4.6 Gas chromatography 213
5.4.7 Mass spectrometry 215
5.4.8 Provenance and attribution determinations 219
5.5 Ongoing research 221
Acknowledgements 222
References 222
Further reading 226
6 Analysis of glass evidence 228
Jose Almirall and Tatiana Trejos
6.1 Introduction to glass examinations and comparisons 228
6.2 Glass the material 231
6.2.1 Physical and chemical properties 231
6.2.2 Manufacturing 233
6.2.3 Fractures and their significance 236
6.2.4 Forensic considerations: Transfer and persistence of glass 238
6.3 A brief history of glass examinations 241
6.4 Glass examinations and comparison standard laboratory practices 242
6.4.1 Physical measurements 243
6.4.2 Optical measurements 244
6.4.3 Chemical measurements: elemental analysis 247
6.5 Interpretation of glass evidence examinations and comparisons 256
6.5.1 Defining the match criteria 256
6.5.2 Descriptive statistics 256
6.5.3 Match criteria for refractive index measurements 257
6.5.4 Informing power of analytical methods forming the opinion 260
6.5.5 Report writing and testimony 262
6.6 Case examples 263
6.6.1 Case 1: Hit¿and¿run case 263
6.6.2 Case 2: Multiple transfer of glass in breaking¿and¿entry case 264
6.7 Conclusions 265
References 266
7 The forensic comparison of soil and geologic microtraces 273
Richard E. Bisbing
7.1 Soil and geologic microtraces as trace evidence 273
7.2 Comparison process 274
7.3 Developing expertise 278
7.4 Genesis of soil 279
7.5 Genesis of geologic microtraces 284
7.6 Collecting questioned samples of unknown origin 287
7.7 Collecting soil samples of known origin 288
7.8 Initial comparisons 290
7.9 Color comparison 290
7.10 Texture comparison 293
7.11 Mineral comparison 297
7.12 Modal analysis 301
7.13 Automated instrumental modal analysis 308
7.14 Ecological constituents 310
7.15 Anthropogenic constituents 312
7.16 Reporting comparison results 312
7.17 Future directions and research 314
Acknowledgments 314
References 315
Further reading 316
8 Chemical analysis for the scientific examination of questioned documents 318
Gerald M. LaPorte
8.1 Static approach 320
8.2 Dynamic approach 324
8.3 Ink composition 324
8.4 Examinations 328
8.4.1 Physical examinations 329
8.4.2 Optical examinations 332
8.4.3 Chemical examinations 333
8.4.4 Paper examinations 339
8.5 Questioned documents crime scenes and evidential considerations 342
8.5.1 How was the questioned document produced? 342
8.5.2 What evidence can be used to associate a questioned document with the crime scene and/or victim? 343
8.5.3 Are there other forensic examinations that can be performed? 345
8.5.4 Demonstrating that a suspect altered a document 346
8.6 Interpreting results and rendering conclusions 347
References 350
9 Chemical methods for the detection of latent fingermarks 354
Amanda A. Frick, Patrick Fritz, and Simon W. Lewis
9.1 Introduction 354
9.2 Sources of latent fingermark residue 355
9.2.1 Aqueous components 356
9.2.2 Lipid components 357
9.2.3 Sources of compositional variation 359
9.3 Chemical processing of latent fingermarks 361
9.3.1 Amino acid sensitive reagents 361
9.3.2 Reagents based on colloidal metals 370
9.3.3 Lipid¿sensitive reagents 377
9.3.4 Other techniques 383
9.4 Experimental considerations for latent fingermark chemistry research 384
9.5 Conclusions and future directions 387
Acknowledgements 388
References 388
Further reading 398
10 Chemical methods in firearms analysis 400
Walter F. Rowe
10.1 Introduction 400
10.2 Basic firearms examination 400
10.2.1 Cleaning bullets and cartridges 402
10.2.2 Analysis of bullet lead 404
10.2.3 Serial number restoration 406
10.3 Shooting incident reconstruction 408
10.3.1 Muzzle¿tötarget determinations 411
10.3.2 Firearm primers 416
10.3.3 Collection of gunshot residue 425
10.4 Conclusion 433
References 433
11 Forensic microscopy 439
Christopher S. Palenik
11.1 The microscope as a tool 439
11.2 Motivation 440
11.2.1 Intimidation 442
11.2.2 Limitations 442
11.3 Scale 442
11.3.1 Scale and magnification 443
11.3.2 Noting scale 443
11.3.3 Analytical volume and limits of detection 443
11.4 Finding 445
11.4.1 Spatial resolution 445
11.4.2 Recovery resolution 447
11.4.3 Stereomicroscope 447
11.5 Preparing 448
11.5.1 Preservation and documentation 448
11.5.2 Isolation 450
11.5.3 Mounting 451
11.6 Looking 455
11.6.1 Light microscopy 456
11.6.2 Scanning electron microscopy 457
11.7 Analyzing 458
11.7.1 Polarized light microscopy 458
11.7.2 Energy dispersive X¿ray spectroscopy 462
11.7.3 FTIR and Raman spectroscopy 464
11.7.4 Other methods 465
11.8 Thinking 465
11.9 Thanking 467
References 467
12 Chemometrics 469
Ruth Smith
12.1 Introduction 469
12.2 Chromatograms and spectra as multivariate data 470
12.3 Data preprocessing 470
12.3.1 Baseline correction 471
12.3.2 Smoothing 473
12.3.3 Retention¿time alignment 473
12.3.4 Normalization and scaling 475
12.4 Unsupervised pattern recognition 477
12.4.1 Hierarchical cluster analysis 478
12.4.2 Principal components analysis 480
12.5 Supervised pattern recognition procedures 485
12.5.1 k¿Nearest neighbors 486
12.5.2 Discriminant analysis 487
12.5.3 Soft independent modeling of class analogy 492
12.5.4 Model validation 493
12.6 Applications of chemometric procedures in forensic science 494
12.6.1 Fire debris and explosives 495
12.6.2 Controlled substances and counterfeit medicines 496
12.6.3 Trace evidence 497
12.6.4 Impression evidence 499
12.7 Conclusions 499
Acknowledgements 500
References 500
Index 504
