- Gebundenes Buch
- Merkliste
- Auf die Merkliste
- Bewerten Bewerten
- Teilen
- Produkt teilen
- Produkterinnerung
- Produkterinnerung
Examines the possible societal impacts of wind energy projects and explains the potential issues faced when siting, constructing, and operating a wind energy project. This book begins with a history of wind power and the social impacts of both electricity and wind power from a historical perspective, a discussion of basic electrical terms, and a primer on the conversion of power in the wind to electricity. Much of the second half of the book is devoted to comparing wind energy to other forms of electric generation, both renewable and non-renewable sources. In order to have a true understanding…mehr
Andere Kunden interessierten sich auch für
- Paul A. LynnOnshore and Offshore Wind Energy86,99 €
- Mohamed E. El-HawaryAdvances in Electric Power and Energy Systems142,99 €
- Understanding Wind Power Technology73,99 €
- Ali KeyhaniIntegration of Green and Renewable Energy in Electric Power Systems147,99 €
- Paul KrugerAlternative Energy Resources126,99 €
- Robert HarrisonLarge Wind Turbines447,99 €
- Myer Kutz (ed.)Environmentally Conscious Alternative Energy Production175,99 €
-
-
-
Examines the possible societal impacts of wind energy projects and explains the potential issues faced when siting, constructing, and operating a wind energy project. This book begins with a history of wind power and the social impacts of both electricity and wind power from a historical perspective, a discussion of basic electrical terms, and a primer on the conversion of power in the wind to electricity. Much of the second half of the book is devoted to comparing wind energy to other forms of electric generation, both renewable and non-renewable sources. In order to have a true understanding of the impact of wind energy on society, one also has to have a thorough understanding of the impacts that other sources of electric generation have, such as fossil-fuelled plants or nuclear power plants. The comparison of electric generation sources includes a review of how such sources are typically utilized within the electric system, as well as the economic factors and environmental considerations that affect which resources utilities or operators of electric grids have to take into account. The authors conclude with a discussion of energy policies in the U.S., individual states, and foreign nations, how these policies influence the use of renewable energy, and what our future may hold in terms of energy supply and demand. Some highlights of this book are: * Discusses the wind energy impacts on the environment, local economy, electric utilities, individuals and communities * Provides a visual explanation of wind energy principles through tables, graphs, maps, illustrations and photographs * Offers a comprehensive overview of the issues associated with the creation and use of wind energy * Models chapters around an existing university curriculum Spanning the broad range of environmental, financial, policy and other topics that define and determine the relationships between wind energy technology and our energy-dependent society, Wind Energy Essentials is a resource for students, universities, and the entire wind energy industry.
Hinweis: Dieser Artikel kann nur an eine deutsche Lieferadresse ausgeliefert werden.
Hinweis: Dieser Artikel kann nur an eine deutsche Lieferadresse ausgeliefert werden.
Produktdetails
- Produktdetails
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 512
- Erscheinungstermin: 18. Mai 2015
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 240mm x 161mm x 32mm
- Gewicht: 980g
- ISBN-13: 9781118877890
- ISBN-10: 1118877896
- Artikelnr.: 40455734
- Verlag: Wiley & Sons
- 1. Auflage
- Seitenzahl: 512
- Erscheinungstermin: 18. Mai 2015
- Englisch
- Abmessung: 240mm x 161mm x 32mm
- Gewicht: 980g
- ISBN-13: 9781118877890
- ISBN-10: 1118877896
- Artikelnr.: 40455734
Richard Walker has many years of experience in both the electric power and the wind energy industries, in addition to teaching wind energy at Texas Tech University. During his career, he has been involved in electric transmission engineering, solar energy, research and development, state and federal governmental affairs, and the development of over 1,600 MW of wind farms currently in operation (including the first utility-scale wind farm in Texas and the 782 MW Roscoe wind farm, which for several years was the world's largest wind energy project). Andrew Swift is presently Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the Associate Director of the National Wind Institute at Texas Tech University, where his focus is on wind energy education and workforce development. His previous academic appointments include Director of the Wind Science and Engineering Research Center at Texas Tech and Dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Texas at El Paso.
Preface xiii Foreword xv About the Authors xvii Dedication and
Acknowledgments xix 1 Impacts of Energy and Electricity on Society 1 1.1
What are "Social and Environmental Impacts"? 1 1.2 Early Wind Power
Innovation and Discovery 2 1.3 Impact of Electricity on Society 20 1.4
History of Wind Energy for Electricity Production 28 1.5 Renewables and
Electrification in Third World Countries 32 1.6 The Nexus of Wind, Water,
and Electricity 32 References 32 2 The Basics of Electricity 34 2.1 Units
of Electrical Measurement 34 2.2 Descriptions of Common Electrical
Equipment 36 2.3 Types of Companies or Business Units within the Electric
Industry 39 2.4 Frequently Asked Questions 40 Reference 47 3 Overview of
Wind Energy and Other Sources of Electricity 48 3.1 Defining Renewable
Energy 48 3.2 Sources and Uses of Energy 51 3.3 Growth of Renewable Energy
in the United States 53 3.4 Use of Renewable Energy for Electricity
Production in the United States 53 3.5 Growth of Wind Power Capacity in the
United States 58 3.6 Subsidies or Incentives for Wind Energy 59 3.7
Potential for Increased Use of Wind Energy in the United States 60 3.8 Wind
Resources in the United States 62 3.9 Overview of Other Sources of Electric
Generation in the United States 67 References 70 4 Conversion of Power in
the Wind to Electricity 71 4.1 Wind Power Plants and Wind Turbines 71 4.2
Atmospheric Science 85 4.3 Wind Statistics 94 5 The Wind Energy Development
Process 100 5.1 Requirements for an Economically Viable Wind Energy Project
100 5.2 Other Factors that Contribute to the Success of a Wind Energy
Project 103 5.3 Potential "Fatal Flaws" 104 5.4 Coordination of the Wind
Energy Project Development Process 105 5.5 Timeline for Developing a Wind
Energy Project 106 5.6 Major Steps in the Early Stage Wind Project
Development Process 107 5.7 Major Steps in Latter Stage Wind Energy Project
Development 111 5.8 Final Steps in Developing a Wind Energy Project 113 5.9
Conclusions 114 References 114 6 Overview of Issues Faced by Wind Energy
115 6.1 The Need to Understand and Respond 115 6.2 Community Relationships
and Public Outreach 117 6.3 General Categorization of Issues 119 Reference
121 7 Wind and Wildlife: Siting Issues and Challenges 122 7.1 Overview of
Wildlife-Related Issues Faced by the Wind Industry 122 7.2 State and
Federal Regulations Relevant to Wind Development's Impact on Wildlife 123
7.3 USFWS Guidelines for Wind Development 124 7.4 Best Management Practices
for Wind Energy Development Included as Chapter 7 of the USFWS Land-Based
Wind Energy Guidelines 125 7.5 Bird Deaths Due to Collisions with Wind
Turbine Blades 128 7.6 Wind Generation Wildlife Issues Not Limited to Avian
Collisions 131 7.7 Avian Species of Concern 133 7.8 Bat Deaths due to Wind
Energy Development 136 7.9 Organizations Studying Ways to Minimize Effects
of Wind Development on Birds and Other Wildlife 140 7.10 Conclusions 141
References 141 8 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public Health Issues 145 8.1 Overview of Environmental and
Ecological Impacts on Humans 145 8.2 Wind Turbine Noise: Key Terms 146 8.3
Estimates of Noise from Wind Turbines 147 8.4 Potential Health Effects of
Audible or Subaudible Noise from Wind Turbines 149 8.5 Noise Ordinances 150
8.6 Technological Advances that can Reduce Turbine Noise 151 8.7 Siting
Procedures for Noise Mitigation 152 8.8 Shadow Flicker 153 8.9 Mitigation
of Shadow Flicker 154 8.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields 155 8.11 Mitigating
EMF Exposure from Wind Projects 156 8.12 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 156
8.13 Mitigation of Solid and Hazardous Waste Issues 157 8.14 Conclusions
158 References 158 9 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public and Workforce Safety Issues 160 9.1 Overview of Workforce
and Public Safety Issues 160 9.2 Things Can Go Wrong Anytime Humans are
Involved (in any Industry) 161 9.3 Ice Shedding 161 9.4 Mitigating Ice
Shedding Issues 163 9.5 Blade Throw 163 9.6 Mitigating Blade Throw Issues
164 9.7 Risk of Fire 164 9.8 Mitigating Risk of Fire 165 9.9 Lightning 165
9.10 Other Weather Emergencies: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Hail 167 9.11
The Impact of Wind Energy on Vehicular Traffic 167 9.12 Planning for and
Addressing Transportation Issues 168 9.13 Electrical and Pipeline Safety:
Height, Depth, and Location of Electric Lines 171 9.14 Other Wind Energy
Industry Workforce Safety Issues 171 9.15 Conclusions 174 References 174 10
Wind Energy's Impact on Aviation, Radar, and Telecommunications 175 10.1
Impact of Wind Energy on Military and Civilian Aviation 175 10.2 Regulatory
Requirements and FAA Permitting Process 176 10.3 FAA Screening Tools 177
10.4 FAA Requirements for Marking or Lighting of Obstructions 181 10.5
Marking and/or Lighting of Meteorological Towers 184 10.6 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Aviation or Navigation Radar 185 10.7 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Weather Radar 189 10.8 Potential Impact of Wind
Turbines on Telecommunications 190 References 192 11 Other Environmental
Issues of Wind Energy Development: Aesthetics, Cultural Resources, Land Use
Compatibility, Water Resources, and Site Restoration 194 11.1 Aesthetic
Issues: Wind Energy's Impact on Scenery or Viewshed 194 11.2 Mitigating
Aesthetic Impacts and Issues 202 11.3 Impact of Wind Energy on Cultural
Resources 202 11.4 Compatibility of Wind Energy Development with Existing
Land Use 204 11.5 Impact of Wind Energy Development on Water Resources 213
11.6 Removal of Retired Equipment and Restoration of Property 215 11.7 Best
Management Practices for Decommissioning of Wind Energy Projects (from
USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines), 216 References, 217 12 Impact of
Wind Energy on the Electric Grid 218 12.1 Overview of Wind Integration
Issues, 218 12.2 The Electric Grid, 219 12.3 Wind Penetration, 221 12.4
Issues that Arise due to Integration of Wind Energy, 222 12.5 Capability of
Wind Turbines to Meet Applicable Standards for Grid Interconnection, 230
12.6 Conclusions, 232 References, 233 13 N on Wind Renewable Energy Sources
Used To Meet Electricity Needs 234 13.1 Comparing Sources of Electric
Generation: Attributes That Will Be Considered 234 13.2 Renewable Energy
Generation Resources in the United States 235 13.3 Hydroelectric Generation
235 13.4 Solar Energy 238 13.5 Biomass Energy 243 13.6 Municipal Solid
Waste 245 13.7 Landfill Gas 246 13.8 Geothermal Energy 248 13.9 Energy from
the Ocean: Tidal Power and Wave Power 250 13.10 Hydrogen 253 References 255
14 Nonrenewable Energy Sources Used to Meet Electricity Needs 256 14.1
Comparing Sources of Electric Generation 256 14.2 Processes or Technologies
Used to Produce Electricity 257 14.3 Comparing Efficiencies of Generation
Technologies 259 14.4 Generation Resources in the United States 261 14.5
Nuclear Energy 261 14.6 Coal-Fired Generation 266 14.7 Natural Gas-Fired
Generation 270 14.8 Oil-Fired Generation 273 14.9 Methane Hydrates 274
References 276 15 Energy Efficiency and Conservation: "Less is More" and
"Doing Without" 277 15.1 Overview 277 15.2 Concepts 278 15.3 Consumer
Efficiency and DSM 283 15.4 Generation and Transmission Efficiency 288 15.5
Conserving Resources and Reducing Emissions 292 15.6 Positive Attributes of
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 294 15.7 Limits to Electric Energy
Efficiency and Conservation 294 References 297 16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
298 16.1 Overview 298 16.2 The Greenhouse Effect 298 16.3 Fossil Fuels and
their Contribution to GHG Levels 301 16.4 International Political and
Economic Issues of Controlling GHG Emissions 306 16.5 Public Opinion and
Policy 306 16.6 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 310 16.7 Methods
and Costs of Mitigation 312 16.8 Conclusions 313 References 313 17 Siting
and Permitting of Electric Generation Projects 315 17.1 Federal Law,
Regulations, and Permitting Requirements 315 17.2 Federal Permits,
Approvals, or Consultations 320 17.3 State and Local Permitting 322 17.4
Public Opposition to Power Plants and Transmission Lines 324 17.5 Examples
of Renewable Energy Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required
Permits or Approvals 325 17.6 Examples of Fossil-Fueled or Nuclear
Generation Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits
or Approvals 326 17.7 Transmission Line Projects Experiencing Difficulty in
Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 329 17.8 Checklist for Governmental
Approvals 330 References 331 18 Economics of Electricity Generation 333
18.1 Sources of Electricity Generation 333 18.2 Electrical Demand versus
Supply 334 18.3 Marginal Cost of Electricity/Energy Value 335 18.4 Effect
of Generation Resource Diversity on Electricity Market Price 337 18.5
Capacity Value of Electric Generation 339 18.6 Effect of Capacity Factor on
the Economics of Electricity Generation 340 18.7 Effect of Expected Useful
Life or Economic Life of Power Plants on the Economics of Electricity
Generation 342 18.8 Book Depreciation versus Depreciation for Tax Purposes
343 18.9 Ad Valorem or Property Taxes 346 18.10 Federal Support and
Subsidies 347 18.11 Environmental Externalities 352 18.12 Using Levelized
Cost of Energy to Compare Competing Technologies 353 18.13 Conclusions 355
References 356 19 Economic Impacts and Benefits of Wind Energy Projects and
Other Sources of Electric Generation 357 19.1 Introduction 357 19.2
Potential Economic Benefits of Electric Generation Projects 357 19.3
Potentially Detrimental Economic Impacts of Electric Generation Projects
360 19.4 Tax Abatements or other Incentives to Attract Generation Projects
363 19.5 Summary of Studies Assessing the Economic Impacts of Wind Plants
364 19.6 Studies on Economic Benefits of Non-Wind Electric Generation
Projects 369 19.7 Opportunities Created by a Transition to a "Clean Energy
Economy" 370 19.8 Conclusions 372 References 372 20 Environmental Impacts
and Economics of Offshore Wind Energy 374 20.1 Offshore Wind Resource Areas
in the United States 374 20.2 Economics of Offshore Wind vs. Onshore Wind
378 20.3 Environmental Impacts Unique to Offshore Wind Energy 379 20.4
Potential Impact of Hurricanes 381 References 381 21 State and National
Energy Policies 383 21.1 Introduction 383 21.2 History of US Energy Policy
384 21.3 Keys Issues within Energy Policy 387 21.4 Energy Imports 388 21.5
Governmental Mandates, Targets, or Goals 391 21.6 Federal Tax Incentives
393 21.7 Public Benefit Funds 396 21.8 Feed?in Tariffs 397 21.9 Net
Metering 398 21.10 Research and Development 399 21.11 Increasing
Restrictions on Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Emissions 400 21.12 Carbon
Taxes/Cap-and-Trade Programs 402 21.13 Conclusions 403 References 404 22
Global Wind Energy Policy and Development 405 22.1 Introduction 405 22.2
Renewable Energy Development--A Global Perspective 405 22.3 The Wind Energy
Industry's Role in the Global Energy Market 407 22.4 Wind Energy by Region
416 22.5 Conclusions 426 References 427 23 Wind Energy Workforce,
Education, and Jobs 429 23.1 Historic Growth of the Wind Energy Industry
429 23.2 Sectors and Locations of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry 429
23.3 Projected Growth of the Wind Energy Industry 438 23.4 Types of Jobs
within the Wind Energy Industry 440 References 444 24 The Future of
Electric Energy 446 24.1 Supply and Use Projections of Fossil Fuels 446
24.2 Eighty Percent Renewables by 2050 449 24.3 Wind Energy Research and
Development 450 24.4 Smart Grid/Infrastructure Updates 450 24.5 The
Consumer of the Future/Consumer Applications 452 24.6 Energy Storage 452
24.7 Clean Energy Transportation: The Role for Wind Energy and Other
Renewables in Reducing National Dependence on Petroleum Imports 453 24.8
Energy and Clean Water: Using Wind to Desalinate and Purify Water 454 24.9
Electrification in Third?]World Countries 455 References 455 Appendix A
Wind Energy Reference Tables for Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Energy
Equivalents 457 Appendix B List of Acronyms 464 Appendix C Glossary 468
Index 479
Acknowledgments xix 1 Impacts of Energy and Electricity on Society 1 1.1
What are "Social and Environmental Impacts"? 1 1.2 Early Wind Power
Innovation and Discovery 2 1.3 Impact of Electricity on Society 20 1.4
History of Wind Energy for Electricity Production 28 1.5 Renewables and
Electrification in Third World Countries 32 1.6 The Nexus of Wind, Water,
and Electricity 32 References 32 2 The Basics of Electricity 34 2.1 Units
of Electrical Measurement 34 2.2 Descriptions of Common Electrical
Equipment 36 2.3 Types of Companies or Business Units within the Electric
Industry 39 2.4 Frequently Asked Questions 40 Reference 47 3 Overview of
Wind Energy and Other Sources of Electricity 48 3.1 Defining Renewable
Energy 48 3.2 Sources and Uses of Energy 51 3.3 Growth of Renewable Energy
in the United States 53 3.4 Use of Renewable Energy for Electricity
Production in the United States 53 3.5 Growth of Wind Power Capacity in the
United States 58 3.6 Subsidies or Incentives for Wind Energy 59 3.7
Potential for Increased Use of Wind Energy in the United States 60 3.8 Wind
Resources in the United States 62 3.9 Overview of Other Sources of Electric
Generation in the United States 67 References 70 4 Conversion of Power in
the Wind to Electricity 71 4.1 Wind Power Plants and Wind Turbines 71 4.2
Atmospheric Science 85 4.3 Wind Statistics 94 5 The Wind Energy Development
Process 100 5.1 Requirements for an Economically Viable Wind Energy Project
100 5.2 Other Factors that Contribute to the Success of a Wind Energy
Project 103 5.3 Potential "Fatal Flaws" 104 5.4 Coordination of the Wind
Energy Project Development Process 105 5.5 Timeline for Developing a Wind
Energy Project 106 5.6 Major Steps in the Early Stage Wind Project
Development Process 107 5.7 Major Steps in Latter Stage Wind Energy Project
Development 111 5.8 Final Steps in Developing a Wind Energy Project 113 5.9
Conclusions 114 References 114 6 Overview of Issues Faced by Wind Energy
115 6.1 The Need to Understand and Respond 115 6.2 Community Relationships
and Public Outreach 117 6.3 General Categorization of Issues 119 Reference
121 7 Wind and Wildlife: Siting Issues and Challenges 122 7.1 Overview of
Wildlife-Related Issues Faced by the Wind Industry 122 7.2 State and
Federal Regulations Relevant to Wind Development's Impact on Wildlife 123
7.3 USFWS Guidelines for Wind Development 124 7.4 Best Management Practices
for Wind Energy Development Included as Chapter 7 of the USFWS Land-Based
Wind Energy Guidelines 125 7.5 Bird Deaths Due to Collisions with Wind
Turbine Blades 128 7.6 Wind Generation Wildlife Issues Not Limited to Avian
Collisions 131 7.7 Avian Species of Concern 133 7.8 Bat Deaths due to Wind
Energy Development 136 7.9 Organizations Studying Ways to Minimize Effects
of Wind Development on Birds and Other Wildlife 140 7.10 Conclusions 141
References 141 8 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public Health Issues 145 8.1 Overview of Environmental and
Ecological Impacts on Humans 145 8.2 Wind Turbine Noise: Key Terms 146 8.3
Estimates of Noise from Wind Turbines 147 8.4 Potential Health Effects of
Audible or Subaudible Noise from Wind Turbines 149 8.5 Noise Ordinances 150
8.6 Technological Advances that can Reduce Turbine Noise 151 8.7 Siting
Procedures for Noise Mitigation 152 8.8 Shadow Flicker 153 8.9 Mitigation
of Shadow Flicker 154 8.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields 155 8.11 Mitigating
EMF Exposure from Wind Projects 156 8.12 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 156
8.13 Mitigation of Solid and Hazardous Waste Issues 157 8.14 Conclusions
158 References 158 9 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public and Workforce Safety Issues 160 9.1 Overview of Workforce
and Public Safety Issues 160 9.2 Things Can Go Wrong Anytime Humans are
Involved (in any Industry) 161 9.3 Ice Shedding 161 9.4 Mitigating Ice
Shedding Issues 163 9.5 Blade Throw 163 9.6 Mitigating Blade Throw Issues
164 9.7 Risk of Fire 164 9.8 Mitigating Risk of Fire 165 9.9 Lightning 165
9.10 Other Weather Emergencies: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Hail 167 9.11
The Impact of Wind Energy on Vehicular Traffic 167 9.12 Planning for and
Addressing Transportation Issues 168 9.13 Electrical and Pipeline Safety:
Height, Depth, and Location of Electric Lines 171 9.14 Other Wind Energy
Industry Workforce Safety Issues 171 9.15 Conclusions 174 References 174 10
Wind Energy's Impact on Aviation, Radar, and Telecommunications 175 10.1
Impact of Wind Energy on Military and Civilian Aviation 175 10.2 Regulatory
Requirements and FAA Permitting Process 176 10.3 FAA Screening Tools 177
10.4 FAA Requirements for Marking or Lighting of Obstructions 181 10.5
Marking and/or Lighting of Meteorological Towers 184 10.6 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Aviation or Navigation Radar 185 10.7 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Weather Radar 189 10.8 Potential Impact of Wind
Turbines on Telecommunications 190 References 192 11 Other Environmental
Issues of Wind Energy Development: Aesthetics, Cultural Resources, Land Use
Compatibility, Water Resources, and Site Restoration 194 11.1 Aesthetic
Issues: Wind Energy's Impact on Scenery or Viewshed 194 11.2 Mitigating
Aesthetic Impacts and Issues 202 11.3 Impact of Wind Energy on Cultural
Resources 202 11.4 Compatibility of Wind Energy Development with Existing
Land Use 204 11.5 Impact of Wind Energy Development on Water Resources 213
11.6 Removal of Retired Equipment and Restoration of Property 215 11.7 Best
Management Practices for Decommissioning of Wind Energy Projects (from
USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines), 216 References, 217 12 Impact of
Wind Energy on the Electric Grid 218 12.1 Overview of Wind Integration
Issues, 218 12.2 The Electric Grid, 219 12.3 Wind Penetration, 221 12.4
Issues that Arise due to Integration of Wind Energy, 222 12.5 Capability of
Wind Turbines to Meet Applicable Standards for Grid Interconnection, 230
12.6 Conclusions, 232 References, 233 13 N on Wind Renewable Energy Sources
Used To Meet Electricity Needs 234 13.1 Comparing Sources of Electric
Generation: Attributes That Will Be Considered 234 13.2 Renewable Energy
Generation Resources in the United States 235 13.3 Hydroelectric Generation
235 13.4 Solar Energy 238 13.5 Biomass Energy 243 13.6 Municipal Solid
Waste 245 13.7 Landfill Gas 246 13.8 Geothermal Energy 248 13.9 Energy from
the Ocean: Tidal Power and Wave Power 250 13.10 Hydrogen 253 References 255
14 Nonrenewable Energy Sources Used to Meet Electricity Needs 256 14.1
Comparing Sources of Electric Generation 256 14.2 Processes or Technologies
Used to Produce Electricity 257 14.3 Comparing Efficiencies of Generation
Technologies 259 14.4 Generation Resources in the United States 261 14.5
Nuclear Energy 261 14.6 Coal-Fired Generation 266 14.7 Natural Gas-Fired
Generation 270 14.8 Oil-Fired Generation 273 14.9 Methane Hydrates 274
References 276 15 Energy Efficiency and Conservation: "Less is More" and
"Doing Without" 277 15.1 Overview 277 15.2 Concepts 278 15.3 Consumer
Efficiency and DSM 283 15.4 Generation and Transmission Efficiency 288 15.5
Conserving Resources and Reducing Emissions 292 15.6 Positive Attributes of
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 294 15.7 Limits to Electric Energy
Efficiency and Conservation 294 References 297 16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
298 16.1 Overview 298 16.2 The Greenhouse Effect 298 16.3 Fossil Fuels and
their Contribution to GHG Levels 301 16.4 International Political and
Economic Issues of Controlling GHG Emissions 306 16.5 Public Opinion and
Policy 306 16.6 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 310 16.7 Methods
and Costs of Mitigation 312 16.8 Conclusions 313 References 313 17 Siting
and Permitting of Electric Generation Projects 315 17.1 Federal Law,
Regulations, and Permitting Requirements 315 17.2 Federal Permits,
Approvals, or Consultations 320 17.3 State and Local Permitting 322 17.4
Public Opposition to Power Plants and Transmission Lines 324 17.5 Examples
of Renewable Energy Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required
Permits or Approvals 325 17.6 Examples of Fossil-Fueled or Nuclear
Generation Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits
or Approvals 326 17.7 Transmission Line Projects Experiencing Difficulty in
Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 329 17.8 Checklist for Governmental
Approvals 330 References 331 18 Economics of Electricity Generation 333
18.1 Sources of Electricity Generation 333 18.2 Electrical Demand versus
Supply 334 18.3 Marginal Cost of Electricity/Energy Value 335 18.4 Effect
of Generation Resource Diversity on Electricity Market Price 337 18.5
Capacity Value of Electric Generation 339 18.6 Effect of Capacity Factor on
the Economics of Electricity Generation 340 18.7 Effect of Expected Useful
Life or Economic Life of Power Plants on the Economics of Electricity
Generation 342 18.8 Book Depreciation versus Depreciation for Tax Purposes
343 18.9 Ad Valorem or Property Taxes 346 18.10 Federal Support and
Subsidies 347 18.11 Environmental Externalities 352 18.12 Using Levelized
Cost of Energy to Compare Competing Technologies 353 18.13 Conclusions 355
References 356 19 Economic Impacts and Benefits of Wind Energy Projects and
Other Sources of Electric Generation 357 19.1 Introduction 357 19.2
Potential Economic Benefits of Electric Generation Projects 357 19.3
Potentially Detrimental Economic Impacts of Electric Generation Projects
360 19.4 Tax Abatements or other Incentives to Attract Generation Projects
363 19.5 Summary of Studies Assessing the Economic Impacts of Wind Plants
364 19.6 Studies on Economic Benefits of Non-Wind Electric Generation
Projects 369 19.7 Opportunities Created by a Transition to a "Clean Energy
Economy" 370 19.8 Conclusions 372 References 372 20 Environmental Impacts
and Economics of Offshore Wind Energy 374 20.1 Offshore Wind Resource Areas
in the United States 374 20.2 Economics of Offshore Wind vs. Onshore Wind
378 20.3 Environmental Impacts Unique to Offshore Wind Energy 379 20.4
Potential Impact of Hurricanes 381 References 381 21 State and National
Energy Policies 383 21.1 Introduction 383 21.2 History of US Energy Policy
384 21.3 Keys Issues within Energy Policy 387 21.4 Energy Imports 388 21.5
Governmental Mandates, Targets, or Goals 391 21.6 Federal Tax Incentives
393 21.7 Public Benefit Funds 396 21.8 Feed?in Tariffs 397 21.9 Net
Metering 398 21.10 Research and Development 399 21.11 Increasing
Restrictions on Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Emissions 400 21.12 Carbon
Taxes/Cap-and-Trade Programs 402 21.13 Conclusions 403 References 404 22
Global Wind Energy Policy and Development 405 22.1 Introduction 405 22.2
Renewable Energy Development--A Global Perspective 405 22.3 The Wind Energy
Industry's Role in the Global Energy Market 407 22.4 Wind Energy by Region
416 22.5 Conclusions 426 References 427 23 Wind Energy Workforce,
Education, and Jobs 429 23.1 Historic Growth of the Wind Energy Industry
429 23.2 Sectors and Locations of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry 429
23.3 Projected Growth of the Wind Energy Industry 438 23.4 Types of Jobs
within the Wind Energy Industry 440 References 444 24 The Future of
Electric Energy 446 24.1 Supply and Use Projections of Fossil Fuels 446
24.2 Eighty Percent Renewables by 2050 449 24.3 Wind Energy Research and
Development 450 24.4 Smart Grid/Infrastructure Updates 450 24.5 The
Consumer of the Future/Consumer Applications 452 24.6 Energy Storage 452
24.7 Clean Energy Transportation: The Role for Wind Energy and Other
Renewables in Reducing National Dependence on Petroleum Imports 453 24.8
Energy and Clean Water: Using Wind to Desalinate and Purify Water 454 24.9
Electrification in Third?]World Countries 455 References 455 Appendix A
Wind Energy Reference Tables for Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Energy
Equivalents 457 Appendix B List of Acronyms 464 Appendix C Glossary 468
Index 479
Preface xiii Foreword xv About the Authors xvii Dedication and
Acknowledgments xix 1 Impacts of Energy and Electricity on Society 1 1.1
What are "Social and Environmental Impacts"? 1 1.2 Early Wind Power
Innovation and Discovery 2 1.3 Impact of Electricity on Society 20 1.4
History of Wind Energy for Electricity Production 28 1.5 Renewables and
Electrification in Third World Countries 32 1.6 The Nexus of Wind, Water,
and Electricity 32 References 32 2 The Basics of Electricity 34 2.1 Units
of Electrical Measurement 34 2.2 Descriptions of Common Electrical
Equipment 36 2.3 Types of Companies or Business Units within the Electric
Industry 39 2.4 Frequently Asked Questions 40 Reference 47 3 Overview of
Wind Energy and Other Sources of Electricity 48 3.1 Defining Renewable
Energy 48 3.2 Sources and Uses of Energy 51 3.3 Growth of Renewable Energy
in the United States 53 3.4 Use of Renewable Energy for Electricity
Production in the United States 53 3.5 Growth of Wind Power Capacity in the
United States 58 3.6 Subsidies or Incentives for Wind Energy 59 3.7
Potential for Increased Use of Wind Energy in the United States 60 3.8 Wind
Resources in the United States 62 3.9 Overview of Other Sources of Electric
Generation in the United States 67 References 70 4 Conversion of Power in
the Wind to Electricity 71 4.1 Wind Power Plants and Wind Turbines 71 4.2
Atmospheric Science 85 4.3 Wind Statistics 94 5 The Wind Energy Development
Process 100 5.1 Requirements for an Economically Viable Wind Energy Project
100 5.2 Other Factors that Contribute to the Success of a Wind Energy
Project 103 5.3 Potential "Fatal Flaws" 104 5.4 Coordination of the Wind
Energy Project Development Process 105 5.5 Timeline for Developing a Wind
Energy Project 106 5.6 Major Steps in the Early Stage Wind Project
Development Process 107 5.7 Major Steps in Latter Stage Wind Energy Project
Development 111 5.8 Final Steps in Developing a Wind Energy Project 113 5.9
Conclusions 114 References 114 6 Overview of Issues Faced by Wind Energy
115 6.1 The Need to Understand and Respond 115 6.2 Community Relationships
and Public Outreach 117 6.3 General Categorization of Issues 119 Reference
121 7 Wind and Wildlife: Siting Issues and Challenges 122 7.1 Overview of
Wildlife-Related Issues Faced by the Wind Industry 122 7.2 State and
Federal Regulations Relevant to Wind Development's Impact on Wildlife 123
7.3 USFWS Guidelines for Wind Development 124 7.4 Best Management Practices
for Wind Energy Development Included as Chapter 7 of the USFWS Land-Based
Wind Energy Guidelines 125 7.5 Bird Deaths Due to Collisions with Wind
Turbine Blades 128 7.6 Wind Generation Wildlife Issues Not Limited to Avian
Collisions 131 7.7 Avian Species of Concern 133 7.8 Bat Deaths due to Wind
Energy Development 136 7.9 Organizations Studying Ways to Minimize Effects
of Wind Development on Birds and Other Wildlife 140 7.10 Conclusions 141
References 141 8 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public Health Issues 145 8.1 Overview of Environmental and
Ecological Impacts on Humans 145 8.2 Wind Turbine Noise: Key Terms 146 8.3
Estimates of Noise from Wind Turbines 147 8.4 Potential Health Effects of
Audible or Subaudible Noise from Wind Turbines 149 8.5 Noise Ordinances 150
8.6 Technological Advances that can Reduce Turbine Noise 151 8.7 Siting
Procedures for Noise Mitigation 152 8.8 Shadow Flicker 153 8.9 Mitigation
of Shadow Flicker 154 8.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields 155 8.11 Mitigating
EMF Exposure from Wind Projects 156 8.12 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 156
8.13 Mitigation of Solid and Hazardous Waste Issues 157 8.14 Conclusions
158 References 158 9 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public and Workforce Safety Issues 160 9.1 Overview of Workforce
and Public Safety Issues 160 9.2 Things Can Go Wrong Anytime Humans are
Involved (in any Industry) 161 9.3 Ice Shedding 161 9.4 Mitigating Ice
Shedding Issues 163 9.5 Blade Throw 163 9.6 Mitigating Blade Throw Issues
164 9.7 Risk of Fire 164 9.8 Mitigating Risk of Fire 165 9.9 Lightning 165
9.10 Other Weather Emergencies: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Hail 167 9.11
The Impact of Wind Energy on Vehicular Traffic 167 9.12 Planning for and
Addressing Transportation Issues 168 9.13 Electrical and Pipeline Safety:
Height, Depth, and Location of Electric Lines 171 9.14 Other Wind Energy
Industry Workforce Safety Issues 171 9.15 Conclusions 174 References 174 10
Wind Energy's Impact on Aviation, Radar, and Telecommunications 175 10.1
Impact of Wind Energy on Military and Civilian Aviation 175 10.2 Regulatory
Requirements and FAA Permitting Process 176 10.3 FAA Screening Tools 177
10.4 FAA Requirements for Marking or Lighting of Obstructions 181 10.5
Marking and/or Lighting of Meteorological Towers 184 10.6 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Aviation or Navigation Radar 185 10.7 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Weather Radar 189 10.8 Potential Impact of Wind
Turbines on Telecommunications 190 References 192 11 Other Environmental
Issues of Wind Energy Development: Aesthetics, Cultural Resources, Land Use
Compatibility, Water Resources, and Site Restoration 194 11.1 Aesthetic
Issues: Wind Energy's Impact on Scenery or Viewshed 194 11.2 Mitigating
Aesthetic Impacts and Issues 202 11.3 Impact of Wind Energy on Cultural
Resources 202 11.4 Compatibility of Wind Energy Development with Existing
Land Use 204 11.5 Impact of Wind Energy Development on Water Resources 213
11.6 Removal of Retired Equipment and Restoration of Property 215 11.7 Best
Management Practices for Decommissioning of Wind Energy Projects (from
USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines), 216 References, 217 12 Impact of
Wind Energy on the Electric Grid 218 12.1 Overview of Wind Integration
Issues, 218 12.2 The Electric Grid, 219 12.3 Wind Penetration, 221 12.4
Issues that Arise due to Integration of Wind Energy, 222 12.5 Capability of
Wind Turbines to Meet Applicable Standards for Grid Interconnection, 230
12.6 Conclusions, 232 References, 233 13 N on Wind Renewable Energy Sources
Used To Meet Electricity Needs 234 13.1 Comparing Sources of Electric
Generation: Attributes That Will Be Considered 234 13.2 Renewable Energy
Generation Resources in the United States 235 13.3 Hydroelectric Generation
235 13.4 Solar Energy 238 13.5 Biomass Energy 243 13.6 Municipal Solid
Waste 245 13.7 Landfill Gas 246 13.8 Geothermal Energy 248 13.9 Energy from
the Ocean: Tidal Power and Wave Power 250 13.10 Hydrogen 253 References 255
14 Nonrenewable Energy Sources Used to Meet Electricity Needs 256 14.1
Comparing Sources of Electric Generation 256 14.2 Processes or Technologies
Used to Produce Electricity 257 14.3 Comparing Efficiencies of Generation
Technologies 259 14.4 Generation Resources in the United States 261 14.5
Nuclear Energy 261 14.6 Coal-Fired Generation 266 14.7 Natural Gas-Fired
Generation 270 14.8 Oil-Fired Generation 273 14.9 Methane Hydrates 274
References 276 15 Energy Efficiency and Conservation: "Less is More" and
"Doing Without" 277 15.1 Overview 277 15.2 Concepts 278 15.3 Consumer
Efficiency and DSM 283 15.4 Generation and Transmission Efficiency 288 15.5
Conserving Resources and Reducing Emissions 292 15.6 Positive Attributes of
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 294 15.7 Limits to Electric Energy
Efficiency and Conservation 294 References 297 16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
298 16.1 Overview 298 16.2 The Greenhouse Effect 298 16.3 Fossil Fuels and
their Contribution to GHG Levels 301 16.4 International Political and
Economic Issues of Controlling GHG Emissions 306 16.5 Public Opinion and
Policy 306 16.6 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 310 16.7 Methods
and Costs of Mitigation 312 16.8 Conclusions 313 References 313 17 Siting
and Permitting of Electric Generation Projects 315 17.1 Federal Law,
Regulations, and Permitting Requirements 315 17.2 Federal Permits,
Approvals, or Consultations 320 17.3 State and Local Permitting 322 17.4
Public Opposition to Power Plants and Transmission Lines 324 17.5 Examples
of Renewable Energy Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required
Permits or Approvals 325 17.6 Examples of Fossil-Fueled or Nuclear
Generation Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits
or Approvals 326 17.7 Transmission Line Projects Experiencing Difficulty in
Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 329 17.8 Checklist for Governmental
Approvals 330 References 331 18 Economics of Electricity Generation 333
18.1 Sources of Electricity Generation 333 18.2 Electrical Demand versus
Supply 334 18.3 Marginal Cost of Electricity/Energy Value 335 18.4 Effect
of Generation Resource Diversity on Electricity Market Price 337 18.5
Capacity Value of Electric Generation 339 18.6 Effect of Capacity Factor on
the Economics of Electricity Generation 340 18.7 Effect of Expected Useful
Life or Economic Life of Power Plants on the Economics of Electricity
Generation 342 18.8 Book Depreciation versus Depreciation for Tax Purposes
343 18.9 Ad Valorem or Property Taxes 346 18.10 Federal Support and
Subsidies 347 18.11 Environmental Externalities 352 18.12 Using Levelized
Cost of Energy to Compare Competing Technologies 353 18.13 Conclusions 355
References 356 19 Economic Impacts and Benefits of Wind Energy Projects and
Other Sources of Electric Generation 357 19.1 Introduction 357 19.2
Potential Economic Benefits of Electric Generation Projects 357 19.3
Potentially Detrimental Economic Impacts of Electric Generation Projects
360 19.4 Tax Abatements or other Incentives to Attract Generation Projects
363 19.5 Summary of Studies Assessing the Economic Impacts of Wind Plants
364 19.6 Studies on Economic Benefits of Non-Wind Electric Generation
Projects 369 19.7 Opportunities Created by a Transition to a "Clean Energy
Economy" 370 19.8 Conclusions 372 References 372 20 Environmental Impacts
and Economics of Offshore Wind Energy 374 20.1 Offshore Wind Resource Areas
in the United States 374 20.2 Economics of Offshore Wind vs. Onshore Wind
378 20.3 Environmental Impacts Unique to Offshore Wind Energy 379 20.4
Potential Impact of Hurricanes 381 References 381 21 State and National
Energy Policies 383 21.1 Introduction 383 21.2 History of US Energy Policy
384 21.3 Keys Issues within Energy Policy 387 21.4 Energy Imports 388 21.5
Governmental Mandates, Targets, or Goals 391 21.6 Federal Tax Incentives
393 21.7 Public Benefit Funds 396 21.8 Feed?in Tariffs 397 21.9 Net
Metering 398 21.10 Research and Development 399 21.11 Increasing
Restrictions on Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Emissions 400 21.12 Carbon
Taxes/Cap-and-Trade Programs 402 21.13 Conclusions 403 References 404 22
Global Wind Energy Policy and Development 405 22.1 Introduction 405 22.2
Renewable Energy Development--A Global Perspective 405 22.3 The Wind Energy
Industry's Role in the Global Energy Market 407 22.4 Wind Energy by Region
416 22.5 Conclusions 426 References 427 23 Wind Energy Workforce,
Education, and Jobs 429 23.1 Historic Growth of the Wind Energy Industry
429 23.2 Sectors and Locations of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry 429
23.3 Projected Growth of the Wind Energy Industry 438 23.4 Types of Jobs
within the Wind Energy Industry 440 References 444 24 The Future of
Electric Energy 446 24.1 Supply and Use Projections of Fossil Fuels 446
24.2 Eighty Percent Renewables by 2050 449 24.3 Wind Energy Research and
Development 450 24.4 Smart Grid/Infrastructure Updates 450 24.5 The
Consumer of the Future/Consumer Applications 452 24.6 Energy Storage 452
24.7 Clean Energy Transportation: The Role for Wind Energy and Other
Renewables in Reducing National Dependence on Petroleum Imports 453 24.8
Energy and Clean Water: Using Wind to Desalinate and Purify Water 454 24.9
Electrification in Third?]World Countries 455 References 455 Appendix A
Wind Energy Reference Tables for Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Energy
Equivalents 457 Appendix B List of Acronyms 464 Appendix C Glossary 468
Index 479
Acknowledgments xix 1 Impacts of Energy and Electricity on Society 1 1.1
What are "Social and Environmental Impacts"? 1 1.2 Early Wind Power
Innovation and Discovery 2 1.3 Impact of Electricity on Society 20 1.4
History of Wind Energy for Electricity Production 28 1.5 Renewables and
Electrification in Third World Countries 32 1.6 The Nexus of Wind, Water,
and Electricity 32 References 32 2 The Basics of Electricity 34 2.1 Units
of Electrical Measurement 34 2.2 Descriptions of Common Electrical
Equipment 36 2.3 Types of Companies or Business Units within the Electric
Industry 39 2.4 Frequently Asked Questions 40 Reference 47 3 Overview of
Wind Energy and Other Sources of Electricity 48 3.1 Defining Renewable
Energy 48 3.2 Sources and Uses of Energy 51 3.3 Growth of Renewable Energy
in the United States 53 3.4 Use of Renewable Energy for Electricity
Production in the United States 53 3.5 Growth of Wind Power Capacity in the
United States 58 3.6 Subsidies or Incentives for Wind Energy 59 3.7
Potential for Increased Use of Wind Energy in the United States 60 3.8 Wind
Resources in the United States 62 3.9 Overview of Other Sources of Electric
Generation in the United States 67 References 70 4 Conversion of Power in
the Wind to Electricity 71 4.1 Wind Power Plants and Wind Turbines 71 4.2
Atmospheric Science 85 4.3 Wind Statistics 94 5 The Wind Energy Development
Process 100 5.1 Requirements for an Economically Viable Wind Energy Project
100 5.2 Other Factors that Contribute to the Success of a Wind Energy
Project 103 5.3 Potential "Fatal Flaws" 104 5.4 Coordination of the Wind
Energy Project Development Process 105 5.5 Timeline for Developing a Wind
Energy Project 106 5.6 Major Steps in the Early Stage Wind Project
Development Process 107 5.7 Major Steps in Latter Stage Wind Energy Project
Development 111 5.8 Final Steps in Developing a Wind Energy Project 113 5.9
Conclusions 114 References 114 6 Overview of Issues Faced by Wind Energy
115 6.1 The Need to Understand and Respond 115 6.2 Community Relationships
and Public Outreach 117 6.3 General Categorization of Issues 119 Reference
121 7 Wind and Wildlife: Siting Issues and Challenges 122 7.1 Overview of
Wildlife-Related Issues Faced by the Wind Industry 122 7.2 State and
Federal Regulations Relevant to Wind Development's Impact on Wildlife 123
7.3 USFWS Guidelines for Wind Development 124 7.4 Best Management Practices
for Wind Energy Development Included as Chapter 7 of the USFWS Land-Based
Wind Energy Guidelines 125 7.5 Bird Deaths Due to Collisions with Wind
Turbine Blades 128 7.6 Wind Generation Wildlife Issues Not Limited to Avian
Collisions 131 7.7 Avian Species of Concern 133 7.8 Bat Deaths due to Wind
Energy Development 136 7.9 Organizations Studying Ways to Minimize Effects
of Wind Development on Birds and Other Wildlife 140 7.10 Conclusions 141
References 141 8 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public Health Issues 145 8.1 Overview of Environmental and
Ecological Impacts on Humans 145 8.2 Wind Turbine Noise: Key Terms 146 8.3
Estimates of Noise from Wind Turbines 147 8.4 Potential Health Effects of
Audible or Subaudible Noise from Wind Turbines 149 8.5 Noise Ordinances 150
8.6 Technological Advances that can Reduce Turbine Noise 151 8.7 Siting
Procedures for Noise Mitigation 152 8.8 Shadow Flicker 153 8.9 Mitigation
of Shadow Flicker 154 8.10 Electric and Magnetic Fields 155 8.11 Mitigating
EMF Exposure from Wind Projects 156 8.12 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 156
8.13 Mitigation of Solid and Hazardous Waste Issues 157 8.14 Conclusions
158 References 158 9 Environmental and Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy on
Humans: Public and Workforce Safety Issues 160 9.1 Overview of Workforce
and Public Safety Issues 160 9.2 Things Can Go Wrong Anytime Humans are
Involved (in any Industry) 161 9.3 Ice Shedding 161 9.4 Mitigating Ice
Shedding Issues 163 9.5 Blade Throw 163 9.6 Mitigating Blade Throw Issues
164 9.7 Risk of Fire 164 9.8 Mitigating Risk of Fire 165 9.9 Lightning 165
9.10 Other Weather Emergencies: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Hail 167 9.11
The Impact of Wind Energy on Vehicular Traffic 167 9.12 Planning for and
Addressing Transportation Issues 168 9.13 Electrical and Pipeline Safety:
Height, Depth, and Location of Electric Lines 171 9.14 Other Wind Energy
Industry Workforce Safety Issues 171 9.15 Conclusions 174 References 174 10
Wind Energy's Impact on Aviation, Radar, and Telecommunications 175 10.1
Impact of Wind Energy on Military and Civilian Aviation 175 10.2 Regulatory
Requirements and FAA Permitting Process 176 10.3 FAA Screening Tools 177
10.4 FAA Requirements for Marking or Lighting of Obstructions 181 10.5
Marking and/or Lighting of Meteorological Towers 184 10.6 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Aviation or Navigation Radar 185 10.7 Potential Impact
of Wind Turbines on Weather Radar 189 10.8 Potential Impact of Wind
Turbines on Telecommunications 190 References 192 11 Other Environmental
Issues of Wind Energy Development: Aesthetics, Cultural Resources, Land Use
Compatibility, Water Resources, and Site Restoration 194 11.1 Aesthetic
Issues: Wind Energy's Impact on Scenery or Viewshed 194 11.2 Mitigating
Aesthetic Impacts and Issues 202 11.3 Impact of Wind Energy on Cultural
Resources 202 11.4 Compatibility of Wind Energy Development with Existing
Land Use 204 11.5 Impact of Wind Energy Development on Water Resources 213
11.6 Removal of Retired Equipment and Restoration of Property 215 11.7 Best
Management Practices for Decommissioning of Wind Energy Projects (from
USFWS Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines), 216 References, 217 12 Impact of
Wind Energy on the Electric Grid 218 12.1 Overview of Wind Integration
Issues, 218 12.2 The Electric Grid, 219 12.3 Wind Penetration, 221 12.4
Issues that Arise due to Integration of Wind Energy, 222 12.5 Capability of
Wind Turbines to Meet Applicable Standards for Grid Interconnection, 230
12.6 Conclusions, 232 References, 233 13 N on Wind Renewable Energy Sources
Used To Meet Electricity Needs 234 13.1 Comparing Sources of Electric
Generation: Attributes That Will Be Considered 234 13.2 Renewable Energy
Generation Resources in the United States 235 13.3 Hydroelectric Generation
235 13.4 Solar Energy 238 13.5 Biomass Energy 243 13.6 Municipal Solid
Waste 245 13.7 Landfill Gas 246 13.8 Geothermal Energy 248 13.9 Energy from
the Ocean: Tidal Power and Wave Power 250 13.10 Hydrogen 253 References 255
14 Nonrenewable Energy Sources Used to Meet Electricity Needs 256 14.1
Comparing Sources of Electric Generation 256 14.2 Processes or Technologies
Used to Produce Electricity 257 14.3 Comparing Efficiencies of Generation
Technologies 259 14.4 Generation Resources in the United States 261 14.5
Nuclear Energy 261 14.6 Coal-Fired Generation 266 14.7 Natural Gas-Fired
Generation 270 14.8 Oil-Fired Generation 273 14.9 Methane Hydrates 274
References 276 15 Energy Efficiency and Conservation: "Less is More" and
"Doing Without" 277 15.1 Overview 277 15.2 Concepts 278 15.3 Consumer
Efficiency and DSM 283 15.4 Generation and Transmission Efficiency 288 15.5
Conserving Resources and Reducing Emissions 292 15.6 Positive Attributes of
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 294 15.7 Limits to Electric Energy
Efficiency and Conservation 294 References 297 16 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
298 16.1 Overview 298 16.2 The Greenhouse Effect 298 16.3 Fossil Fuels and
their Contribution to GHG Levels 301 16.4 International Political and
Economic Issues of Controlling GHG Emissions 306 16.5 Public Opinion and
Policy 306 16.6 Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 310 16.7 Methods
and Costs of Mitigation 312 16.8 Conclusions 313 References 313 17 Siting
and Permitting of Electric Generation Projects 315 17.1 Federal Law,
Regulations, and Permitting Requirements 315 17.2 Federal Permits,
Approvals, or Consultations 320 17.3 State and Local Permitting 322 17.4
Public Opposition to Power Plants and Transmission Lines 324 17.5 Examples
of Renewable Energy Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required
Permits or Approvals 325 17.6 Examples of Fossil-Fueled or Nuclear
Generation Projects Experiencing Difficulty in Obtaining Required Permits
or Approvals 326 17.7 Transmission Line Projects Experiencing Difficulty in
Obtaining Required Permits or Approvals 329 17.8 Checklist for Governmental
Approvals 330 References 331 18 Economics of Electricity Generation 333
18.1 Sources of Electricity Generation 333 18.2 Electrical Demand versus
Supply 334 18.3 Marginal Cost of Electricity/Energy Value 335 18.4 Effect
of Generation Resource Diversity on Electricity Market Price 337 18.5
Capacity Value of Electric Generation 339 18.6 Effect of Capacity Factor on
the Economics of Electricity Generation 340 18.7 Effect of Expected Useful
Life or Economic Life of Power Plants on the Economics of Electricity
Generation 342 18.8 Book Depreciation versus Depreciation for Tax Purposes
343 18.9 Ad Valorem or Property Taxes 346 18.10 Federal Support and
Subsidies 347 18.11 Environmental Externalities 352 18.12 Using Levelized
Cost of Energy to Compare Competing Technologies 353 18.13 Conclusions 355
References 356 19 Economic Impacts and Benefits of Wind Energy Projects and
Other Sources of Electric Generation 357 19.1 Introduction 357 19.2
Potential Economic Benefits of Electric Generation Projects 357 19.3
Potentially Detrimental Economic Impacts of Electric Generation Projects
360 19.4 Tax Abatements or other Incentives to Attract Generation Projects
363 19.5 Summary of Studies Assessing the Economic Impacts of Wind Plants
364 19.6 Studies on Economic Benefits of Non-Wind Electric Generation
Projects 369 19.7 Opportunities Created by a Transition to a "Clean Energy
Economy" 370 19.8 Conclusions 372 References 372 20 Environmental Impacts
and Economics of Offshore Wind Energy 374 20.1 Offshore Wind Resource Areas
in the United States 374 20.2 Economics of Offshore Wind vs. Onshore Wind
378 20.3 Environmental Impacts Unique to Offshore Wind Energy 379 20.4
Potential Impact of Hurricanes 381 References 381 21 State and National
Energy Policies 383 21.1 Introduction 383 21.2 History of US Energy Policy
384 21.3 Keys Issues within Energy Policy 387 21.4 Energy Imports 388 21.5
Governmental Mandates, Targets, or Goals 391 21.6 Federal Tax Incentives
393 21.7 Public Benefit Funds 396 21.8 Feed?in Tariffs 397 21.9 Net
Metering 398 21.10 Research and Development 399 21.11 Increasing
Restrictions on Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Emissions 400 21.12 Carbon
Taxes/Cap-and-Trade Programs 402 21.13 Conclusions 403 References 404 22
Global Wind Energy Policy and Development 405 22.1 Introduction 405 22.2
Renewable Energy Development--A Global Perspective 405 22.3 The Wind Energy
Industry's Role in the Global Energy Market 407 22.4 Wind Energy by Region
416 22.5 Conclusions 426 References 427 23 Wind Energy Workforce,
Education, and Jobs 429 23.1 Historic Growth of the Wind Energy Industry
429 23.2 Sectors and Locations of Jobs within the Wind Energy Industry 429
23.3 Projected Growth of the Wind Energy Industry 438 23.4 Types of Jobs
within the Wind Energy Industry 440 References 444 24 The Future of
Electric Energy 446 24.1 Supply and Use Projections of Fossil Fuels 446
24.2 Eighty Percent Renewables by 2050 449 24.3 Wind Energy Research and
Development 450 24.4 Smart Grid/Infrastructure Updates 450 24.5 The
Consumer of the Future/Consumer Applications 452 24.6 Energy Storage 452
24.7 Clean Energy Transportation: The Role for Wind Energy and Other
Renewables in Reducing National Dependence on Petroleum Imports 453 24.8
Energy and Clean Water: Using Wind to Desalinate and Purify Water 454 24.9
Electrification in Third?]World Countries 455 References 455 Appendix A
Wind Energy Reference Tables for Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Energy
Equivalents 457 Appendix B List of Acronyms 464 Appendix C Glossary 468
Index 479