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1 Introduction.- 1.1 Historical background.- 1.2 Definitions, terminology and abbreviations.- 1.2.1 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).- 1.2.2 Controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP).- 1.2.3 Gas packaging.- 1.2.4 Vacuum packaging (VP).- 1.2.5 Gas cocktail.- 1.2.6 Controlled atmosphere storage (CAS).- 1.2.7 Hypobaric storage.- 1.3 Methods of atmosphere modification in packaged foods.- 1.3.1 Vacuum packaging.- 1.3.2 Gas packaging.- 1.4 Gases used in MAP.- 1.4.1 Oxygen (O2).- 1.4.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2).- 1.4.3 Nitrogen (N2).- 1.4.4 Carbon monoxide (CO).- 1.4.5 Other gases.- 1.4.6 Gas mixtures.- 1.4.7 Sources of gases.- 1.5 Microbiology of MAP.- 1.5.1 Effects on spoilage microorganisms.- 1.5.2 Effects on pathogenic microorganisms.- 1.5.3 Storage temperatures.- 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of MAP.- 1.6.1 Advantages of MAP.- 1.6.2 Disadvantages of MAP.- References.- 2 The market.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 History of controlled atmosphere/modified atmosphere/vacuum packaging.- 2.3 Europe.- 2.3.1 Fresh meats.- 2.3.2 Fresh vegetables.- 2.3.3 Prepared foods.- 2.4 United States/Canada.- 2.4.1 Red meat.- 2.4.2 Poultry.- 2.4.3 Fruit and vegetables.- 2.4.4 Soft bakery goods.- 2.4.5 Pasta.- 2.4.6 Pizza.- 2.4.7 Salads.- 2.4.8 Other products.- 2.5 Conclusion.- Further reading.- 3 Packaging machinery.- 3.1 Historical development.- 3.2 Gases.- 3.3 Packaging material.- 3.4 Packaging machines.- 3.5 Chamber machines.- 3.5.1 Thermoforming system.- 3.5.2 Preformed container machines.- 3.6 Flexible pillow wrapping machines.- 3.6.1 Horizontal form-fill-seal machine systems.- 3.6.2 Inverted horizontal form-fill-seal machine systems.- 3.6.3 Vertical form-fill-seal systems.- 3.7 Fail-safe assurance.- 3.8 Automatic product feeding systems.- 3.9 Conclusion.- Appendix-Packaging systems for MAP.- 4 Films for MAP of foods.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Plastic films commonly used in MAP.- 4.2.1 Low density polyethylene (LDPE).- 4.2.2 Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE).- 4.2.3 High density polyethylene (HDPE).- 4.2.4 Polypropylene (PP).- 4.2.5 Ionomers.- 4.2.6 Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA).- 4.2.7 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).- 4.2.8 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) copolymer.- 4.2.9 Polystyrene (PS).- 4.2.10 High impact polystyrene (HIPS).- 4.2.11 Barex.- 4.2.12 Polyamides.- 4.2.13 Polyethylene terephthalate (polyester or PET).- 4.2.14 Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) - trade name EVAL.- 4.2.15 Coextruded orientated polypropylene (COPP).- 4.2.16 Other films.- 4.3 Combinations of films.- 4.3.1 Laminates, coextrusion and extrusion coating.- 4.3.2 Specifications.- 4.4 Typical specifications for MAP use.- 4.4.1 Horizontal and vertical form-fill-seal systems.- 4.4.2 Bulk gas packaging (BGP).- 4.4.3 Microwavable packs.- 4.4.4 Technical problems.- 4.5 Seal system and quality.- 4.5.1 Peelable seals.- 4.5.2 Antifog (AF) properties.- 4.5.3 Printing and labelling.- 4.5.4 Specifications.- 4.6 Legislation and the environment.- 4.7 Oil use and energy.- Appendices.- Appendix I Antifogging properties.- Appendix II Draft specification for CAP reels.- Appendix III Recommended storage conditions for CAP materials.- Appendix IV Calculations.- Reference.- 5 Quality control of MAP products.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Safety and quality of MAP foods.- 5.3 Applications of hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) to MAP foods.- 5.4 Total quality control and quality of MAP foods.- 5.5 Combining hazard analysis critical control point and total quality control.- 5.6 Quality control testing.- 5.6.1 Film faults.- 5.6.2 Headspace gas analysis.- 5.6.3 Seal strength.- 5.6.4 Temperature checks.- 5.7 Regulatory aspects of MAP foods.- 5.8 Summary.- References.- 6 Fruit and vegetables.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.1.1 Controlled atmosphere storage vs. MAP.- 6.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of MAP.- 6.1.3 Methods of creating modified atmosphere conditions.- 6.1.4 Optimal equilibrium gas levels.- 6.2 Background information.- 6.2.1 Factors affecting shelf-life.- 6.2.2 Intrinsic properties of fresh ...