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Gas Treating: Absorption Theory and Practice provides an introduction to the treatment of natural gas, synthesis gas and flue gas, addressing why it is necessary and the challenges involved. The book concentrates in particular on the absorption-desorption process and mass transfer coupled with chemical reaction. Following a general introduction to gas treatment, the chemistry of CO2, H2S and amine systems is described, and selected topics from physical chemistry with relevance to gas treating are presented. Thereafter the absorption process is discussed in detail, column hardware is explained…mehr
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- Produktdetails
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 440
- Erscheinungstermin: 25. August 2014
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781118877623
- Artikelnr.: 41495297
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 440
- Erscheinungstermin: 25. August 2014
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781118877623
- Artikelnr.: 41495297
Introduction 1 1.1 Definitions 1 1.2 Gas Markets, Gas Applications and
Feedstock 3 1.3 Sizes 3 1.4 Units 4 1.5 Ambient Conditions 7 1.6 Objective
of This Book 7 1.7 Example Problems 7 References 13 2. Gas Treating in
General 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Process Categories 16 2.3 Sulfur Removal
37 2.4 Absorption Process 43 References 45 3. Rate of Mass Transfer 49 3.1
Introduction 49 3.2 The Rate Equation 50 3.3 Co-absorption and/or
Simultaneous Desorption 51 3.4 Convection and Diffusion 51 3.5 Heat Balance
51 3.6 Axially along the Column 52 3.7 Flowsheet Simulators 52 3.8 Rate
versus Equilibrium Approaches 53 Further Reading 53 4. Chemistry in Acid
Gas Treating 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 'Chemistry' 57 4.3 Acid Character
of CO2 and H2S 63 4.4 The H2S Chemistry with any Alkanolamine 65 4.5
Chemistry of CO2 with Primary and Secondary Alkanolamines 65 4.6 The
Chemistry of Tertiary Amines 72 4.7 Chemistry of the Minor Sulfur
Containing Gases 73 4.8 Sterically Hindered Amines 78 4.9 Hot Carbonate
Absorbent Systems 80 4.10 Simultaneous Absorption of H2S and CO2 82 4.11
Reaction Mechanisms and Activators-Final Words 82 4.12 Review Questions,
Problems and Challenges 82 References 83 5. Physical Chemistry Topics 87
5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Discussion of Solvents 87 5.3 Acid-Base
Considerations 90 5.4 The Amine-CO2 Buffer System 98 5.5 Gas Solubilities,
Henry's and Raoult's Laws 100 5.6 Solubilities of Solids 105 5.7 N2O
Analogy 105 5.8 Partial Molar Properties and Representation 106 5.9
Hydration and Hydrolysis 107 5.10 Solvation 107 References 108 6. Diffusion
111 6.1 Dilute Mixtures 111 6.2 Concentrated Mixtures 114 6.3 Values of
Diffusion Coefficients 116 6.4 Interacting Species 121 6.5 Interaction with
Surfaces 122 6.6 Multicomponent Situations 122 6.7 Examples 122 References
125 Further Reading 126 7. Absorption Column Mass Transfer Analysis 127 7.1
Introduction 127 7.2 The Column 128 7.3 The Flux Equations 128 7.4 The
Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients and the Interface 129 7.5 Control
Volumes, Mass and Energy - Balances 132 7.6 Analytical Solution and Its
Limitations 135 7.7 The NTU-HTU Concept 137 7.8 Operating and Equilibrium
Lines - A Graphical Representation 138 7.9 Other Concentration Units 139
7.10 Concentrated Mixtures and Simultaneous Absorption 140 7.11 Liquid or
Gas Side Control? A Few Pointers 143 7.12 The Equilibrium Stage Alternative
Approach 144 7.13 Co-absorption in a Defined Column 145 7.14 Numerical
Examples 146 Numerical Integration 149 References 151 8. Column Hardware
153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Packings 154 8.3 Packing Auxiliaries 162 8.4
Tray Columns and Trays 165 8.5 Spray Columns 170 8.6 Demisters 170 8.7
Examples 173 References 178 Further Reading 179 9. Rotating Packed Beds 181
9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Flooding and Pressure Drop 183 9.3 Fluid Flow 184
9.4 Mass Transfer Correlations 184 9.5 Application to Gas Treating 187 9.6
Other Salient Points 189 9.7 Challenges Associated with Rotating Packed
Beds 189 References 189 10. Mass Transfer Models 193 10.1 The Film Model
193 10.2 Penetration Theory 195 10.3 Surface Renewal Theory 197 10.4
Boundary Layer Theory 198 10.5 Eddy Diffusion, 'Film-Penetration' and More
198 References 199 11. Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients 201 11.1
Introduction 201 11.2 Packings: Generic Considerations 201 11.3 Random
Packings 202 11.4 Structured Packings 206 11.5 Packed Column Correlations
206 11.6 Tray Columns 211 11.7 Examples 212 References 218 Further Reading
221 12. Chemistry and Mass Transfer 223 12.1 Background 223 12.2
Equilibrium or Kinetics 223 12.3 Diffusion with Chemical Reaction 225 12.4
Reaction Regimes Related to Mass Transfer 226 12.5 Enhancement Factors 243
12.6 Arbitrary, Reversible Reactions and/or Parallel Reactions 246 12.7
Software 247 12.8 Numerical Examples 248 References 253 Further Reading 254
13. Selective Absorption of H2S 255 13.1 Background 255 13.2 Theoretical
Discussion of Rate Based Selectivity 256 13.3 What Fundamental Information
is Available in the Literature? 258 13.4 Process Options and Industrial
Practice 260 13.5 Key Design Points 262 13.6 Process Intensification 262
13.7 Numerical Example 262 References 264 14. Gas Dehydration 267 14.1
Background 267 14.2 Dehydration Options 268 14.3 Glycol Based Processes 269
14.4 Contaminants and Countermeasures 273 14.5 Operational Problems 274
14.6 TEG Equilibrium Data 274 14.7 Hydrate Inhibition in Pipelines 276 14.8
Determination of Water 276 14.9 Example Problems 277 References 280 15.
Experimental Techniques 283 15.1 Introduction 283 15.2 Experimental Design
283 15.3 Laminar Jet 285 15.4 Wetted Wall 289 15.5 Single Sphere 291 15.6
Stirred Cell 293 15.7 Stopped Flow 295 15.8 Other Mass Transfer Methods
Less Used 298 15.9 Other Techniques in Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer 300 15.10
Equilibrium Measurements 300 15.11 Data Interpretation and Sub-Models 303
References 303 16. Absorption Equilibria 307 16.1 Introduction 307 16.2
Fundamental Relations 308 16.3 Literature Data Reported 311 16.4
Danckwerts-McNeil 312 16.5 Kent-Eisenberg 313 16.6 Deshmukh-Mather 313 16.7
Electrolyte NRTL (Austgen-Bishnoi-Chen-Rochelle) 314 16.8 Li-Mather 314
16.9 Extended UNIQUAC 315 16.10 EoS - SAFT 315 16.11 Other Models 316
References 316 17. Desorption 319 17.1 Introduction 319 17.2 Chemistry of
Desorption 322 17.3 Kinetics of Reaction 324 17.4 Bubbling Desorption 325
17.5 Desorption Process Analysis and Modelling 327 17.6 Unconventional
Approaches to Desorption 328 References 329 18. Heat Exchangers 333 18.1
Introduction 333 18.2 Reboiler 333 18.3 Desorber Overhead Condenser 337
18.4 Economiser or Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger 338 18.5 Amine Cooler 341 18.6
Water Wash Circulation Cooler 341 18.7 Heat Exchanger Alternatives 341
References 342 Further Reading 343 19. Solution Management 345 19.1
Introduction 345 19.2 Contaminant Problem 346 19.3 Feed Gas Pretreatment
346 19.4 Rich Absorbent Flash 348 19.5 Filter 348 19.6 Reclaiming 351 19.7
Chemicals to Combat Foaming 353 19.8 Corrosion Inhibitors 355 19.9 Waste
Handling 355 19.10 Solution Containment 355 19.11 Water Balance 355 19.12
Cleaning the Plant Equipment 356 19.13 Final Words on Solution Management
356 References 356 20. Absorption-Desorption Cycle 359 20.1 The Cycle and
the Dimensioning Specifications 359 20.2 Alternative Cycle Variations 362
20.3 Other Limitations 364 20.4 Matching Process and Treating Demands 365
20.5 Solution Management 366 20.6 Flowsheet Variations to Save Desorption
Energy 368 References 369 21. Degradation 371 21.1 Introduction to
Degradation 371 21.2 Carbamate Polymerisation 372 21.3 Thermal Degradation
372 21.4 Oxidative Degradation 373 21.5 Corrosion and Degradation 373 21.6
The Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSSs) 373 21.7 SOx and NOx in Feed Gas 373
21.8 Nitrosamines 374 21.9 Concluding Remarks 374 References 374 22.
Materials, Corrosion, Inhibitors 375 22.1 Introduction 375 22.2 Corrosion
Basics 376 22.3 Gas Phase 377 22.4 Protective Layers and What Makes Them
Break Down (Chemistry) 378 22.5 Fluid Velocities and Corrosion 378 22.6
Stress Induced Corrosion 379 22.7 Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSS) 379
22.8 Inhibitors 379 22.9 Problem Areas, Observations and Mitigation Actions
380 References 380 23. Technological Fronts 383 23.1 Historical Background
383 23.2 Fundamental Understanding and Absorbent Trends 384 23.3 Natural
Gas Treating 385 23.4 Syngas Treating 385 23.5 Flue Gas Treating 386 23.6
Where Are We Heading? 386 References 387 24. Flue Gas Treating 389 24.1
Introduction 389 24.2 Pressure Drop and Size Issues 390 24.3 Absorbent
Degradation 390 24.4 Treated Gas as Effluent 390 24.5 CO2 Export
Specification 391 24.6 Energy Implications 391 24.7 Cost Issues 392 24.8
The Greenhouse Gas Problem 394 References 396 Web Sites 396 25. Natural Gas
Treating (and Syngas) 397 25.1 Introduction 397 25.2 Gas Export
Specification 398 25.3 Natural Gas Contaminants and Foaming 398 25.4
Hydrogen Sulfide 399 25.5 Regeneration by Flash 399 25.6 Choice of
Absorbents 399 Further Reading 400 26. Treating in Various Situations 401
26.1 Introduction and Environmental Perspective 401 26.2 End of Pipe
Solutions 401 26.3 Sulfur Dioxide 402 26.4 Nitrogen Oxides 402 26.5 Dusts
and Aerosols 403 26.6 New Challenges 403 Index 405
Introduction 1 1.1 Definitions 1 1.2 Gas Markets, Gas Applications and
Feedstock 3 1.3 Sizes 3 1.4 Units 4 1.5 Ambient Conditions 7 1.6 Objective
of This Book 7 1.7 Example Problems 7 References 13 2. Gas Treating in
General 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Process Categories 16 2.3 Sulfur Removal
37 2.4 Absorption Process 43 References 45 3. Rate of Mass Transfer 49 3.1
Introduction 49 3.2 The Rate Equation 50 3.3 Co-absorption and/or
Simultaneous Desorption 51 3.4 Convection and Diffusion 51 3.5 Heat Balance
51 3.6 Axially along the Column 52 3.7 Flowsheet Simulators 52 3.8 Rate
versus Equilibrium Approaches 53 Further Reading 53 4. Chemistry in Acid
Gas Treating 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 'Chemistry' 57 4.3 Acid Character
of CO2 and H2S 63 4.4 The H2S Chemistry with any Alkanolamine 65 4.5
Chemistry of CO2 with Primary and Secondary Alkanolamines 65 4.6 The
Chemistry of Tertiary Amines 72 4.7 Chemistry of the Minor Sulfur
Containing Gases 73 4.8 Sterically Hindered Amines 78 4.9 Hot Carbonate
Absorbent Systems 80 4.10 Simultaneous Absorption of H2S and CO2 82 4.11
Reaction Mechanisms and Activators-Final Words 82 4.12 Review Questions,
Problems and Challenges 82 References 83 5. Physical Chemistry Topics 87
5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Discussion of Solvents 87 5.3 Acid-Base
Considerations 90 5.4 The Amine-CO2 Buffer System 98 5.5 Gas Solubilities,
Henry's and Raoult's Laws 100 5.6 Solubilities of Solids 105 5.7 N2O
Analogy 105 5.8 Partial Molar Properties and Representation 106 5.9
Hydration and Hydrolysis 107 5.10 Solvation 107 References 108 6. Diffusion
111 6.1 Dilute Mixtures 111 6.2 Concentrated Mixtures 114 6.3 Values of
Diffusion Coefficients 116 6.4 Interacting Species 121 6.5 Interaction with
Surfaces 122 6.6 Multicomponent Situations 122 6.7 Examples 122 References
125 Further Reading 126 7. Absorption Column Mass Transfer Analysis 127 7.1
Introduction 127 7.2 The Column 128 7.3 The Flux Equations 128 7.4 The
Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients and the Interface 129 7.5 Control
Volumes, Mass and Energy - Balances 132 7.6 Analytical Solution and Its
Limitations 135 7.7 The NTU-HTU Concept 137 7.8 Operating and Equilibrium
Lines - A Graphical Representation 138 7.9 Other Concentration Units 139
7.10 Concentrated Mixtures and Simultaneous Absorption 140 7.11 Liquid or
Gas Side Control? A Few Pointers 143 7.12 The Equilibrium Stage Alternative
Approach 144 7.13 Co-absorption in a Defined Column 145 7.14 Numerical
Examples 146 Numerical Integration 149 References 151 8. Column Hardware
153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Packings 154 8.3 Packing Auxiliaries 162 8.4
Tray Columns and Trays 165 8.5 Spray Columns 170 8.6 Demisters 170 8.7
Examples 173 References 178 Further Reading 179 9. Rotating Packed Beds 181
9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Flooding and Pressure Drop 183 9.3 Fluid Flow 184
9.4 Mass Transfer Correlations 184 9.5 Application to Gas Treating 187 9.6
Other Salient Points 189 9.7 Challenges Associated with Rotating Packed
Beds 189 References 189 10. Mass Transfer Models 193 10.1 The Film Model
193 10.2 Penetration Theory 195 10.3 Surface Renewal Theory 197 10.4
Boundary Layer Theory 198 10.5 Eddy Diffusion, 'Film-Penetration' and More
198 References 199 11. Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients 201 11.1
Introduction 201 11.2 Packings: Generic Considerations 201 11.3 Random
Packings 202 11.4 Structured Packings 206 11.5 Packed Column Correlations
206 11.6 Tray Columns 211 11.7 Examples 212 References 218 Further Reading
221 12. Chemistry and Mass Transfer 223 12.1 Background 223 12.2
Equilibrium or Kinetics 223 12.3 Diffusion with Chemical Reaction 225 12.4
Reaction Regimes Related to Mass Transfer 226 12.5 Enhancement Factors 243
12.6 Arbitrary, Reversible Reactions and/or Parallel Reactions 246 12.7
Software 247 12.8 Numerical Examples 248 References 253 Further Reading 254
13. Selective Absorption of H2S 255 13.1 Background 255 13.2 Theoretical
Discussion of Rate Based Selectivity 256 13.3 What Fundamental Information
is Available in the Literature? 258 13.4 Process Options and Industrial
Practice 260 13.5 Key Design Points 262 13.6 Process Intensification 262
13.7 Numerical Example 262 References 264 14. Gas Dehydration 267 14.1
Background 267 14.2 Dehydration Options 268 14.3 Glycol Based Processes 269
14.4 Contaminants and Countermeasures 273 14.5 Operational Problems 274
14.6 TEG Equilibrium Data 274 14.7 Hydrate Inhibition in Pipelines 276 14.8
Determination of Water 276 14.9 Example Problems 277 References 280 15.
Experimental Techniques 283 15.1 Introduction 283 15.2 Experimental Design
283 15.3 Laminar Jet 285 15.4 Wetted Wall 289 15.5 Single Sphere 291 15.6
Stirred Cell 293 15.7 Stopped Flow 295 15.8 Other Mass Transfer Methods
Less Used 298 15.9 Other Techniques in Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer 300 15.10
Equilibrium Measurements 300 15.11 Data Interpretation and Sub-Models 303
References 303 16. Absorption Equilibria 307 16.1 Introduction 307 16.2
Fundamental Relations 308 16.3 Literature Data Reported 311 16.4
Danckwerts-McNeil 312 16.5 Kent-Eisenberg 313 16.6 Deshmukh-Mather 313 16.7
Electrolyte NRTL (Austgen-Bishnoi-Chen-Rochelle) 314 16.8 Li-Mather 314
16.9 Extended UNIQUAC 315 16.10 EoS - SAFT 315 16.11 Other Models 316
References 316 17. Desorption 319 17.1 Introduction 319 17.2 Chemistry of
Desorption 322 17.3 Kinetics of Reaction 324 17.4 Bubbling Desorption 325
17.5 Desorption Process Analysis and Modelling 327 17.6 Unconventional
Approaches to Desorption 328 References 329 18. Heat Exchangers 333 18.1
Introduction 333 18.2 Reboiler 333 18.3 Desorber Overhead Condenser 337
18.4 Economiser or Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger 338 18.5 Amine Cooler 341 18.6
Water Wash Circulation Cooler 341 18.7 Heat Exchanger Alternatives 341
References 342 Further Reading 343 19. Solution Management 345 19.1
Introduction 345 19.2 Contaminant Problem 346 19.3 Feed Gas Pretreatment
346 19.4 Rich Absorbent Flash 348 19.5 Filter 348 19.6 Reclaiming 351 19.7
Chemicals to Combat Foaming 353 19.8 Corrosion Inhibitors 355 19.9 Waste
Handling 355 19.10 Solution Containment 355 19.11 Water Balance 355 19.12
Cleaning the Plant Equipment 356 19.13 Final Words on Solution Management
356 References 356 20. Absorption-Desorption Cycle 359 20.1 The Cycle and
the Dimensioning Specifications 359 20.2 Alternative Cycle Variations 362
20.3 Other Limitations 364 20.4 Matching Process and Treating Demands 365
20.5 Solution Management 366 20.6 Flowsheet Variations to Save Desorption
Energy 368 References 369 21. Degradation 371 21.1 Introduction to
Degradation 371 21.2 Carbamate Polymerisation 372 21.3 Thermal Degradation
372 21.4 Oxidative Degradation 373 21.5 Corrosion and Degradation 373 21.6
The Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSSs) 373 21.7 SOx and NOx in Feed Gas 373
21.8 Nitrosamines 374 21.9 Concluding Remarks 374 References 374 22.
Materials, Corrosion, Inhibitors 375 22.1 Introduction 375 22.2 Corrosion
Basics 376 22.3 Gas Phase 377 22.4 Protective Layers and What Makes Them
Break Down (Chemistry) 378 22.5 Fluid Velocities and Corrosion 378 22.6
Stress Induced Corrosion 379 22.7 Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSS) 379
22.8 Inhibitors 379 22.9 Problem Areas, Observations and Mitigation Actions
380 References 380 23. Technological Fronts 383 23.1 Historical Background
383 23.2 Fundamental Understanding and Absorbent Trends 384 23.3 Natural
Gas Treating 385 23.4 Syngas Treating 385 23.5 Flue Gas Treating 386 23.6
Where Are We Heading? 386 References 387 24. Flue Gas Treating 389 24.1
Introduction 389 24.2 Pressure Drop and Size Issues 390 24.3 Absorbent
Degradation 390 24.4 Treated Gas as Effluent 390 24.5 CO2 Export
Specification 391 24.6 Energy Implications 391 24.7 Cost Issues 392 24.8
The Greenhouse Gas Problem 394 References 396 Web Sites 396 25. Natural Gas
Treating (and Syngas) 397 25.1 Introduction 397 25.2 Gas Export
Specification 398 25.3 Natural Gas Contaminants and Foaming 398 25.4
Hydrogen Sulfide 399 25.5 Regeneration by Flash 399 25.6 Choice of
Absorbents 399 Further Reading 400 26. Treating in Various Situations 401
26.1 Introduction and Environmental Perspective 401 26.2 End of Pipe
Solutions 401 26.3 Sulfur Dioxide 402 26.4 Nitrogen Oxides 402 26.5 Dusts
and Aerosols 403 26.6 New Challenges 403 Index 405