Electrical Energy Efficiency (eBook, ePUB)
Technologies and Applications
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Electrical Energy Efficiency (eBook, ePUB)
Technologies and Applications
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The improvement of electrical energy efficiency is fast becoming one of the most essential areas of sustainability development, backed by political initiatives to control and reduce energy demand. Now a major topic in industry and the electrical engineering research community, engineers have started to focus on analysis, diagnosis and possible solutions. Owing to the complexity and cross-disciplinary nature of electrical energy efficiency issues, the optimal solution is often multi-faceted with a critical solutions evaluation component to ensure cost effectiveness. This single-source reference…mehr
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- Produktdetails
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 550
- Erscheinungstermin: 15. März 2012
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781119942061
- Artikelnr.: 37340842
- Verlag: John Wiley & Sons
- Seitenzahl: 550
- Erscheinungstermin: 15. März 2012
- Englisch
- ISBN-13: 9781119942061
- Artikelnr.: 37340842
Standardization of Energy Efficiency 1 Franco Bua and Angelo Baggini 1.1
Standardization 3 1.1.1 ISO 4 1.1.2 IEC 5 1.1.3 CEN and CENELEC 6 Further
Readings 8 2 Cables and Lines 9 Paola Pezzini and Andreas Sumper 2.1 Theory
of Heat Transfer 10 2.1.1 Conduction 10 2.1.2 Convection 10 2.1.3 Radiation
11 2.2 Current Rating of Cables Installed in Free Air 12 2.3 Economic
Aspects 15 2.4 Calculation of the Current Rating: Total Costs 16 2.4.1
Evaluation of CJ 16 2.5 Determination of Economic Conductor Sizes 18 2.5.1
Economic Current Range for Each Conductor in a Series of Sizes 18 2.5.2
Economic Conductor Size for a Given Load 18 2.6 Summary 19 References 19 3
Power Transformers 21 Roman Targosz, Stefan Fassbinder and Angelo Baggini
3.1 Losses in Transformers 23 3.1.1 No-Load Losses 23 3.1.2 Load Losses 24
3.1.3 Auxiliary Losses 24 3.1.4 Extra Losses due to Harmonics, Unbalance
and Reactive Power 25 3.2 Efficiency and Load Factor 30 3.3 Losses and
Cooling System 31 3.4 Energy Efficiency Standards and Regulations 32 3.4.1
MEPS 37 3.4.2 Mandatory Labelling 37 3.4.3 Voluntary Programmes 37 3.5 Life
Cycle Costing 39 3.5.1 Life Cycle Cost of Transformers 40 3.5.2 Detailed
Considerations 44 3.6 Design, Material and Manufacturing 47 3.6.1 Core 47
3.6.2 Windings 52 3.6.3 Other Developments 54 3.7 Case Study - Evaluation
TOC of an Industrial Transformer 54 3.7.1 Method 55 3.7.2 Results 56
References 59 Further Readings 59 3.A Annex 60 3.A.1 Selected MEPS 60 4
Building Automation, Control and Management Systems 71 Angelo Baggini and
Annalisa Marra 4.1 Automation Functions for Energy Savings 72 4.1.1
Temperature Control 72 4.1.2 Lighting 74 4.1.3 Drives and Motors 74 4.1.4
Technical Alarms and Management 75 4.1.5 Remote Control 76 4.2 Automation
Systems 76 4.2.1 KNX Systems 77 4.2.2 Scada Systems 82 4.3 Automation
Device Own Consumption 86 4.4 Basic Schemes 86 4.4.1 Heating and Cooling 86
4.4.2 Ventilation and Air Conditioning 95 4.4.3 Lighting 107 4.4.4
Sunscreens 109 4.4.5 Technical Building Management 110 4.4.6 Technical
Installations in the Building 111 4.5 The Estimate of Building Energy
Performance 113 4.5.1 European Standard EN 15232 113 4.5.2 Comparison of
Methods: Detailed Calculations and BAC Factors 115 Further Readings 124 5
Power Quality Phenomena and Indicators 125 Andrei Cziker, Zbigniew Hanzelka
and Ireana Wasiak 5.1 RMS Voltage Level 126 5.1.1 Sources 127 5.1.2 Effects
on Energy Efficiency 128 5.1.3 Mitigation Methods 130 5.2 Voltage
Fluctuations 132 5.2.1 Disturbance Description 132 5.2.2 Sources of Voltage
Fluctuations 134 5.2.3 Effects and Cost 135 5.2.4 Mitigation Methods 138
5.3 Voltage and Current Unbalance 138 5.3.1 Disturbance Description 139
5.3.2 Sources 140 5.3.3 Effect and Cost 140 5.3.4 Mitigation Methods 143
5.4 Voltage and Current Distortion 145 5.4.1 Disturbance Description 145
5.4.2 Sources 146 5.4.3 Effects and Cost 147 5.4.4 Mitigation Methods 153
References 162 Further Readings 162 6 On Site Generation and Microgrids 165
Irena Wasiak and Zbigniew Hanzelka 6.1 Technologies of Distributed Energy
Resources 166 6.1.1 Energy Sources 166 6.1.2 Energy Storage 170 6.2 Impact
of DG on Power Losses in Distribution Networks 175 6.3 Microgrids 178 6.3.1
Concept 178 6.3.2 Energy Storage Applications 180 6.3.3 Management and
Control 182 6.3.4 Power Quality and Reliability in Microgrids 184
References 186 Further Readings 187 7 Electric Motors 189 Joris Lemmens and
Wim Deprez 7.1 Losses in Electric Motors 190 7.1.1 Power Balance and Energy
Efficiency 191 7.1.2 Loss Components Classification 193 7.1.3 Influence
Factors 195 7.2 Motor Efficiency Standards 199 7.2.1 Efficiency
Classification Standards 199 7.2.2 Efficiency Measurement Standards 200
7.2.3 Future Standard for Variable Speed Drives 207 7.3 High Efficiency
Motor Technology 208 7.3.1 Motor Materials 210 7.3.2 Motor Design 218 7.3.3
Motor Manufacturing 224 References 226 8 Lighting 229 Mircea Chindris and
Antoni Sudria-Andreu 8.1 Energy and Lighting Systems 230 8.1.1 Energy
Consumption in Lighting Systems 230 8.1.2 Energy Efficiency in Lighting
Systems 231 8.2 Regulations 233 8.3 Technological Advances in Lighting
Systems 234 8.3.1 Efficient Light Sources 234 8.3.2 Efficient Ballasts 239
8.3.3 Efficient Luminaries 241 8.4 Energy Efficiency in Indoor Lighting
Systems 242 8.4.1 Policy Actions to Support Energy Efficiency 242 8.4.2
Retrofit or Redesign? 245 8.4.3 Lighting Controls 247 8.4.4 Daylighting 251
8.5 Energy Efficiency in Outdoor Lighting Systems 252 8.5.1 Efficient Lamps
and Luminaires 253 8.5.2 Outdoor Lighting Controls 256 8.6 Maintenance of
Lighting Systems 259 References 260 Further Readings 261 9 Electrical
Drives and Power Electronics 263 Daniel Montesinos-Miracle, Joan
Bergas-Jan¿e and Edris Pouresmaeil 9.1 Control Methods for Induction Motors
and PMSM 266 9.1.1 V/f Control 266 9.1.2 Vector Control 271 9.1.3 DTC 272
9.2 Energy Optimal Control Methods 274 9.2.1 Converter Losses 275 9.2.2
Motor Losses 276 9.2.3 Energy Optimal Control Strategies 276 9.3 Topology
of the Variable Speed Drive 276 9.3.1 Input Stage 277 9.3.2 DC Bus 278
9.3.3 The Inverter 279 9.4 New Trends on Power Semiconductors 280 9.4.1
Modulation Techniques 281 9.4.2 Review of Different Modulation Methods 283
References 291 Further Readings 193 10 Industrial Heating Processes 295
Mircea Chindris and Andreas Sumper 10.1 General Aspects Regarding
Electroheating in Industry 298 10.2 Main Electroheating Technologies 302
10.2.1 Resistance Heating 302 10.2.2 Infrared Heating 309 10.2.3 Induction
Heating 314 10.2.4 Dielectric Heating 318 10.2.5 Arc Furnaces 325 10.3
Specific Aspects Regarding the Increase of Energy Efficiency in Industrial
Heating Processes 326 10.3.1 Replacement of Traditional Heating
Technologies 327 10.3.2 Selection of the Most Suitable Electrotechnology
329 10.3.3 Increasing the Efficiency of the Existing Electroheating
Equipment 330 References 333 Further Readings 334 11 Heat, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning (HVAC) 335 Roberto Villafafila-Robles and Jaume Salom 11.1
Basic Concepts 336 11.2 Environmental Thermal Comfort 338 11.3 HVAC Systems
342 11.3.1 Energy Conversion 344 11.3.2 Energy Balance 346 11.3.3 Energy
Efficiency 347 11.4 Energy Measures in HVAC Systems 348 11.4.1 Final
Service 348 11.4.2 Passive Methods 348 11.4.3 Conversion Device 351 11.4.4
Energy Sources 353 References 354 Further Readings 355 12 Data Centres 357
Angelo Baggini and Franco Bua 12.1 Standards 357 12.2 Consumption Profile
358 12.2.1 Energy Performance Index 360 12.3 IT Infrastructure and
Equipment 360 12.3.1 Blade Server 360 12.3.2 Storage 361 12.3.3 Network
Equipment 361 12.3.4 Consolidation 362 12.3.5 Virtualization 362 12.3.6
Software 363 12.4 Facility Infrastructure 363 12.4.1 Electrical
Infrastructure 363 12.4.2 HVAC Infrastructure 365 12.5 DG and CHP for Data
Centres 368 12.6 Organizing for Energy Efficiency 369 Further Readings 370
13 Reactive Power Compensation 371 Zbigniew Hanzelka, Waldemar Szpyra,
Andrei Cziker and Krzysztof Piatek 13.1 Reactive Power Compensation in an
Electric Utility Network 373 13.1.1 Economic Efficiency of Reactive Power
Compensation 377 13.2 Reactive Power Compensation in an Industrial Network
380 13.2.1 Linear Loads 381 13.2.2 Group Compensation 383 13.2.3 Nonlinear
Loads 387 13.3 Var Compensation 391 13.3.1 A Synchronous Condenser 391
13.3.2 Capacitor Banks 392 13.3.3 Power Electronic Compensators/Stabilizers
393 References 398 Further Readings 398 Index 399
Standardization of Energy Efficiency 1 Franco Bua and Angelo Baggini 1.1
Standardization 3 1.1.1 ISO 4 1.1.2 IEC 5 1.1.3 CEN and CENELEC 6 Further
Readings 8 2 Cables and Lines 9 Paola Pezzini and Andreas Sumper 2.1 Theory
of Heat Transfer 10 2.1.1 Conduction 10 2.1.2 Convection 10 2.1.3 Radiation
11 2.2 Current Rating of Cables Installed in Free Air 12 2.3 Economic
Aspects 15 2.4 Calculation of the Current Rating: Total Costs 16 2.4.1
Evaluation of CJ 16 2.5 Determination of Economic Conductor Sizes 18 2.5.1
Economic Current Range for Each Conductor in a Series of Sizes 18 2.5.2
Economic Conductor Size for a Given Load 18 2.6 Summary 19 References 19 3
Power Transformers 21 Roman Targosz, Stefan Fassbinder and Angelo Baggini
3.1 Losses in Transformers 23 3.1.1 No-Load Losses 23 3.1.2 Load Losses 24
3.1.3 Auxiliary Losses 24 3.1.4 Extra Losses due to Harmonics, Unbalance
and Reactive Power 25 3.2 Efficiency and Load Factor 30 3.3 Losses and
Cooling System 31 3.4 Energy Efficiency Standards and Regulations 32 3.4.1
MEPS 37 3.4.2 Mandatory Labelling 37 3.4.3 Voluntary Programmes 37 3.5 Life
Cycle Costing 39 3.5.1 Life Cycle Cost of Transformers 40 3.5.2 Detailed
Considerations 44 3.6 Design, Material and Manufacturing 47 3.6.1 Core 47
3.6.2 Windings 52 3.6.3 Other Developments 54 3.7 Case Study - Evaluation
TOC of an Industrial Transformer 54 3.7.1 Method 55 3.7.2 Results 56
References 59 Further Readings 59 3.A Annex 60 3.A.1 Selected MEPS 60 4
Building Automation, Control and Management Systems 71 Angelo Baggini and
Annalisa Marra 4.1 Automation Functions for Energy Savings 72 4.1.1
Temperature Control 72 4.1.2 Lighting 74 4.1.3 Drives and Motors 74 4.1.4
Technical Alarms and Management 75 4.1.5 Remote Control 76 4.2 Automation
Systems 76 4.2.1 KNX Systems 77 4.2.2 Scada Systems 82 4.3 Automation
Device Own Consumption 86 4.4 Basic Schemes 86 4.4.1 Heating and Cooling 86
4.4.2 Ventilation and Air Conditioning 95 4.4.3 Lighting 107 4.4.4
Sunscreens 109 4.4.5 Technical Building Management 110 4.4.6 Technical
Installations in the Building 111 4.5 The Estimate of Building Energy
Performance 113 4.5.1 European Standard EN 15232 113 4.5.2 Comparison of
Methods: Detailed Calculations and BAC Factors 115 Further Readings 124 5
Power Quality Phenomena and Indicators 125 Andrei Cziker, Zbigniew Hanzelka
and Ireana Wasiak 5.1 RMS Voltage Level 126 5.1.1 Sources 127 5.1.2 Effects
on Energy Efficiency 128 5.1.3 Mitigation Methods 130 5.2 Voltage
Fluctuations 132 5.2.1 Disturbance Description 132 5.2.2 Sources of Voltage
Fluctuations 134 5.2.3 Effects and Cost 135 5.2.4 Mitigation Methods 138
5.3 Voltage and Current Unbalance 138 5.3.1 Disturbance Description 139
5.3.2 Sources 140 5.3.3 Effect and Cost 140 5.3.4 Mitigation Methods 143
5.4 Voltage and Current Distortion 145 5.4.1 Disturbance Description 145
5.4.2 Sources 146 5.4.3 Effects and Cost 147 5.4.4 Mitigation Methods 153
References 162 Further Readings 162 6 On Site Generation and Microgrids 165
Irena Wasiak and Zbigniew Hanzelka 6.1 Technologies of Distributed Energy
Resources 166 6.1.1 Energy Sources 166 6.1.2 Energy Storage 170 6.2 Impact
of DG on Power Losses in Distribution Networks 175 6.3 Microgrids 178 6.3.1
Concept 178 6.3.2 Energy Storage Applications 180 6.3.3 Management and
Control 182 6.3.4 Power Quality and Reliability in Microgrids 184
References 186 Further Readings 187 7 Electric Motors 189 Joris Lemmens and
Wim Deprez 7.1 Losses in Electric Motors 190 7.1.1 Power Balance and Energy
Efficiency 191 7.1.2 Loss Components Classification 193 7.1.3 Influence
Factors 195 7.2 Motor Efficiency Standards 199 7.2.1 Efficiency
Classification Standards 199 7.2.2 Efficiency Measurement Standards 200
7.2.3 Future Standard for Variable Speed Drives 207 7.3 High Efficiency
Motor Technology 208 7.3.1 Motor Materials 210 7.3.2 Motor Design 218 7.3.3
Motor Manufacturing 224 References 226 8 Lighting 229 Mircea Chindris and
Antoni Sudria-Andreu 8.1 Energy and Lighting Systems 230 8.1.1 Energy
Consumption in Lighting Systems 230 8.1.2 Energy Efficiency in Lighting
Systems 231 8.2 Regulations 233 8.3 Technological Advances in Lighting
Systems 234 8.3.1 Efficient Light Sources 234 8.3.2 Efficient Ballasts 239
8.3.3 Efficient Luminaries 241 8.4 Energy Efficiency in Indoor Lighting
Systems 242 8.4.1 Policy Actions to Support Energy Efficiency 242 8.4.2
Retrofit or Redesign? 245 8.4.3 Lighting Controls 247 8.4.4 Daylighting 251
8.5 Energy Efficiency in Outdoor Lighting Systems 252 8.5.1 Efficient Lamps
and Luminaires 253 8.5.2 Outdoor Lighting Controls 256 8.6 Maintenance of
Lighting Systems 259 References 260 Further Readings 261 9 Electrical
Drives and Power Electronics 263 Daniel Montesinos-Miracle, Joan
Bergas-Jan¿e and Edris Pouresmaeil 9.1 Control Methods for Induction Motors
and PMSM 266 9.1.1 V/f Control 266 9.1.2 Vector Control 271 9.1.3 DTC 272
9.2 Energy Optimal Control Methods 274 9.2.1 Converter Losses 275 9.2.2
Motor Losses 276 9.2.3 Energy Optimal Control Strategies 276 9.3 Topology
of the Variable Speed Drive 276 9.3.1 Input Stage 277 9.3.2 DC Bus 278
9.3.3 The Inverter 279 9.4 New Trends on Power Semiconductors 280 9.4.1
Modulation Techniques 281 9.4.2 Review of Different Modulation Methods 283
References 291 Further Readings 193 10 Industrial Heating Processes 295
Mircea Chindris and Andreas Sumper 10.1 General Aspects Regarding
Electroheating in Industry 298 10.2 Main Electroheating Technologies 302
10.2.1 Resistance Heating 302 10.2.2 Infrared Heating 309 10.2.3 Induction
Heating 314 10.2.4 Dielectric Heating 318 10.2.5 Arc Furnaces 325 10.3
Specific Aspects Regarding the Increase of Energy Efficiency in Industrial
Heating Processes 326 10.3.1 Replacement of Traditional Heating
Technologies 327 10.3.2 Selection of the Most Suitable Electrotechnology
329 10.3.3 Increasing the Efficiency of the Existing Electroheating
Equipment 330 References 333 Further Readings 334 11 Heat, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning (HVAC) 335 Roberto Villafafila-Robles and Jaume Salom 11.1
Basic Concepts 336 11.2 Environmental Thermal Comfort 338 11.3 HVAC Systems
342 11.3.1 Energy Conversion 344 11.3.2 Energy Balance 346 11.3.3 Energy
Efficiency 347 11.4 Energy Measures in HVAC Systems 348 11.4.1 Final
Service 348 11.4.2 Passive Methods 348 11.4.3 Conversion Device 351 11.4.4
Energy Sources 353 References 354 Further Readings 355 12 Data Centres 357
Angelo Baggini and Franco Bua 12.1 Standards 357 12.2 Consumption Profile
358 12.2.1 Energy Performance Index 360 12.3 IT Infrastructure and
Equipment 360 12.3.1 Blade Server 360 12.3.2 Storage 361 12.3.3 Network
Equipment 361 12.3.4 Consolidation 362 12.3.5 Virtualization 362 12.3.6
Software 363 12.4 Facility Infrastructure 363 12.4.1 Electrical
Infrastructure 363 12.4.2 HVAC Infrastructure 365 12.5 DG and CHP for Data
Centres 368 12.6 Organizing for Energy Efficiency 369 Further Readings 370
13 Reactive Power Compensation 371 Zbigniew Hanzelka, Waldemar Szpyra,
Andrei Cziker and Krzysztof Piatek 13.1 Reactive Power Compensation in an
Electric Utility Network 373 13.1.1 Economic Efficiency of Reactive Power
Compensation 377 13.2 Reactive Power Compensation in an Industrial Network
380 13.2.1 Linear Loads 381 13.2.2 Group Compensation 383 13.2.3 Nonlinear
Loads 387 13.3 Var Compensation 391 13.3.1 A Synchronous Condenser 391
13.3.2 Capacitor Banks 392 13.3.3 Power Electronic Compensators/Stabilizers
393 References 398 Further Readings 398 Index 399